1 main control functions. General management functions. Special functions for managing a specific resource. Motivation as a function of management
Function(literally - action) in relation to management characterizes the types of management activities that arise in the process of division and specialization of labor in the field of management.
M. Meskon identifies four general management functions: planning, organization, motivation and control. These functions have two characteristics in common: they all require decision-making, and all require the exchange of information, i.e. these two characteristics link all four managerial functions, ensuring their interdependence.
planning function, according to M. Mescon, offers a decision about what the goals of the organization should be and what the members of the organization should do to allegedly achieve these goals. The planning function answers the following three questions: where are we currently? where do we want to go? and how are we going to do it?
Organization function involves the formation of the structure of the organization, first the distribution and coordination of the work of employees, and then the design of the structure of the organization as a whole.
Motivation function is a process by which management encourages employees to act as planned and organized.
"Control function is the process by which management determines whether an organization is achieving its objectives, highlighting problems and taking corrective action before serious harm occurs. Control enables management to determine whether plans should be revised because they are not feasible or have already been completed. This connection between planning and control completes the cycle that makes process management interrelated functions.
The internal life of an organization consists of a large number of different actions and processes. Depending on the types of organization, its size and type of activity, certain processes and actions may occupy a leading place in it, while some, widely implemented in other organizations, may either be absent or minimally carried out. However, despite the huge variety of actions and processes, a certain number of groups can be distinguished. O. S. Vikhansky, A. I. Naumov and others offer five groups of functional processes, which, in their opinion, cover the activities of any organization and which are the object of management by management.
The special functions of managing a certain resource are: production, marketing, finance, work with personnel, accounting and analysis of economic activity.
production function assumes that the relevant services, managers of a certain level manage the process of processing raw materials, materials and semi-finished products into a product that the organization offers to the external environment.
Marketing function called through marketing activities for the implementation of the created product, to link in a single process the satisfaction of the needs of the organization's customers and the achievement of the organization's goals.
financial function consists in the management of the process of movement of funds in the organization.
Personnel management function associated with the use of the capabilities of employees to achieve the goals of the organization.
Function of accounting and analysis of economic activity involves managing the process of processing and analyzing information about the work of the organization in order to compare the actual activities of the organization with its capabilities, as well as with the activities of other organizations. This allows the organization to uncover the issues that it needs to pay close attention to and choose the best ways to carry out its activities.
24. Planning function
Planning- this is the definition of a system of goals for the functioning and development of the organization, as well as ways and means to achieve them. Any organization cannot do without planning, as it is necessary to make management decisions regarding:
distribution of resources;
coordination of activities between individual departments;
coordination with the external environment (market);
creating an effective internal structure;
control over activities;
development of the organization in the future. Planning ensures the timeliness of decisions, avoids hasty decisions, sets a clear goal and a clear way to achieve it, and also provides an opportunity to control the situation.
In general, the planning process can be distinguished:
· the process of goal-setting (definition of a system of goals);
· the process of combining (coordinating) goals and means to achieve them;
· the process of development or the unity of the existing system of work of the organization with its future development.
goal setting- this is the process of developing a system of goals, starting from the general goals of the organization and ending with the goals of its individual divisions. The result is a goal tree that underpins the entire planning process.
In itself, the presence of a goal does not mean that it will be achieved, it is necessary to have appropriate material, financial and human resources. At the same time, the level of achievement of the goal often depends on the amount of these resources. So, for example, to create an enterprise in a certain industry, an initial investment of at least N million rubles is required. This financial resource must be available, and then a combination of the goal and the means to achieve it will be provided. As a result of coordination, plans appear that combine activities to achieve goals, deadlines, means and performers.
To implement the planning process, it is also necessary to have an established organizational system. The work of the organization is aimed at achieving the target, and the result depends on how this work is built and coordinated. Even the most ideal plans will not be realized without proper organization. There must be an executive structure. In addition, the organization must have the possibility of future development, since without this the organization will collapse (if we do not develop, then we die). The future of the organization depends on the conditions of the environment in which it operates, on the skills and knowledge of the staff, on the place that the organization occupies in the industry (region, country).
The entire planning process in an organization is divided into: strategic, tactical and operational levels.
Strategic planning- this is the definition of the goals and procedures of the organization in the long term, operational planning is the system for managing the organization for the current period of time. These two types of planning connect the organization as a whole with each specific unit and are the key to successful coordination of actions. If we take the organization as a whole, then planning is carried out in the following order:
The mission of the organization is being developed.
Based on the mission, strategic guidelines or directions of activity are developed (these guidelines are often called quality goals).
An assessment and analysis of the external and internal environment of the organization is carried out.
Strategic alternatives are identified.
Choosing a specific strategy or way to achieve a goal. The answer to the question "what to do?".
After setting the goal and choosing alternative ways to achieve it (strategy), the main components of formal planning are:
tactics, or how to achieve this or that result (the answer to the question "how to do it?"). Tactical plans and operational plans are developed on the basis of the chosen strategy, they are designed for a shorter period of time ( tactical- for 1 year - a business plan for the development of the organization for one year, for example; operational plan- at the moment), are developed by middle managers;
policies, or general guidelines for action and decision-making that facilitate the achievement of goals;
procedures, or a description of the actions to be taken in a particular situation;
rules, or what should be done in each specific situation.
Planning and plans
Distinguish between planning and planning . Plan is a detailed set of decisions to be implemented, a list of specific activities and their executors. The plan is the result of the planning process. Plans and planning come in many variations and can be viewed from different perspectives.
By breadth of coverage:
corporate planning (for the entire company as a whole);
planning by type of activity (planning the production of carpets);
planning at the level of a specific unit (planning the work of the shop).
By function:
production;
financial;
personnel;
marketing.
By sub-function (for example, for marketing):
assortment planning;
sales planning.
By time period:
long-term planning - 5 years or more;
medium-term planning - from 2 to 5 years;
short-term planning - up to a year.
According to the level of detail of plans:
strategic planning;
operational;
tactical planning.
As required:
directive plans for direct enforcement;
indicative plans that are indicative and depend on indicators of economic, political, etc. activity.
The plan as a result of planning for performers is a policy document and should include both mandatory and recommendatory indicators, and with an increase in planning time, the number of indicative (recommendatory) indicators grows. This is due to the fact that with long-term planning, the result cannot be determined absolutely precisely, since it depends on changes in business conditions and is of a probabilistic nature. Specific activities, goods, services and works, as well as structures, technologies and procedures can be planned. For example, planning for the expansion of an organization, planning for a better process, or planning for a product launch.
There are three main forms of organizing planning:
"top down";
"upwards";
"targets down - plans up."
Top down planning is based on the fact that the management creates plans that must be carried out by their subordinates. This form of planning can only produce positive results if there is a rigid, authoritarian system of coercion in place.
Planning from the bottom up based on the fact that plans are created by subordinates and approved by management. This is a more progressive form of planning, but in the conditions of deepening specialization and division of labor it is difficult to create a single system of interrelated goals.
Planning "goals down - plans up" combines the advantages and eliminates the disadvantages of the two previous options. Governing bodies develop and formulate goals for their subordinates and stimulate the development of plans in departments. This form makes it possible to create a single system of interrelated plans, since common targets are mandatory for the entire organization.
Planning is based on data from past periods of activity, but the purpose of planning is the activity of the enterprise in the future and control over this process. Therefore, the reliability of planning depends on the accuracy and correctness of the information that managers receive. The quality of planning largely depends on the intellectual level of competence of managers and the accuracy of forecasts regarding the further development of the situation.
Organization function
Purpose of the organization function- preparing and ensuring the implementation of planned activities and the achievement of planned goals.
Job design - in the course of it, it is decided who and how should act. Design allows you to clearly identify and describe the area of work, to ensure the implementation of the functions of the organization.
Work design includes the following steps:
1. Analysis of work.
2. Establishing its parameters.
3. Determination of the technology for performing work.
4. Perception by the performers of the content of the work.
Purpose of job analysis- is to give an objective description of the work itself, i.e. its content, its requirements and its environment or context. There are many job analysis techniques to help managers identify these three elements of any job.
Depending on the chosen method of analysis of the work, the description of its content may be broad or narrow, i.e. may be a simple statement of what to do, or a detailed explanation of each individual operation, each movement of the hand or body.
Functional analysis of work (PAR) includes a description of:
What the employee does in relation to other employees and other jobs;
What methods and operations should be used;
What machines and equipment are used in the performance of this work;
What product / service is produced in the process of doing work.
The first three positions are associated with actions, the fourth - with the result of work. The FAR provides a job description based on a job classification for each of the four positions. This method is widely used in practice for the preparation of so-called staffing tables.
Job Requirements reflect the qualities of the individual necessary for its implementation: skills, abilities, education, experience, health, upbringing and other individual qualities
To compile a list of these requirements in a particular organization, the method of official analytical questionnaire (DAQ) is used.
DAV method involves the description of the specified characteristics of the individual by analyzing the following parameters of work:
Information sources important for the performance of the work;
Information processed and decisions made necessary to carry out the work;
The physical actions and skills required to perform the job;
The nature of the interpersonal relationships desired for the job;
the nature of the individual's reaction to working conditions .
It is used for all types of work, including management. It serves as a basis for the preparation of qualification handbooks.
The context of the work is made up of physical, social and other factors external to the work, describing the conditions in which it must be performed, as well as rights and responsibilities.
Operation parameters determined on the basis of the results of its analysis.
Job options include:
its scale;
complexity;
relationships in which its performer enters with other employees.
Scale of work associated with the content of the work and represents the number of tasks or operations that the employee responsible for this work must perform.
Usually, the more tasks or operations an employee has to perform, the more time it will take him.
The complexity of the work is predominantly qualitative in nature and reflects the degree of independence in decision-making and the degree of ownership of the process. It depends on the personal characteristics of the performer and the rights delegated to him for its implementation.
You can meet people who formally occupy the same positions in the organization, but perform work of different complexity.
Relations at work in its design - the establishment of interpersonal relationships between the performer of the work and other employees, both about the work itself and in connection with other types of work in the organization.
Perception of the content of the work characterizes it from the point of view of understanding its nature by an individual performer. There is a distinction between the objective and subjective properties of work as reflected in people's perceptions. To improve the result of the work, it is necessary to change the perception of the content of the work. Changes may relate to the design of the work, personal qualities or social environment, i.e. everything that affects the perceived content of the work.
A number of methods are used to measure the perceived content of a job in a variety of settings. These are usually questionnaires filled out by interviewees that measure the perception of certain job characteristics.
Americans R. Hackman and E. Lawler identify 6 such characteristics: diversity, autonomy, completeness, effectiveness, interaction and sociability
Diversity- the level of diversity in the set of operations or the level of diversity of tools and processes used in the performance of work.
Anonymity- the level of independence in making decisions on the planning of their work, as well as the choice of means for its implementation.
completeness - the level of bringing the created product (service) to the final result within the framework of this work.
Efficiency(feedback) - the level of awareness of the performer through the work on the effectiveness of his actions.
Interaction- the level of interaction required from the performer with other employees to complete the work.
Sociability- the level to which the job allows the performer to communicate with colleagues and establish informal friendships.
Technology- these are actions, knowledge, methods and physical objects (technique) used in work to obtain a result (product or service).
The relationship between technology and job design can be seen in terms of:
the employee's knowledge of when and where work should be done and how to do it;
in terms of job interdependence.
Informing the employee about when and where the work to be performed determines the degree of freedom in deciding on the start and place of work.
Thus, the assembler on the conveyor has a very small degree of such freedom due to the fact that he must start work with the start of the conveyor, which is his workplace.
Informing the employee about how the work to be done determines the degree of freedom in the choice of means (subjects and methods) by which the desired result is to be obtained.
So, a designer in a design office apparently has a high degree of such freedom due to the fact that he creates a new, unknown. In such a situation, experience, judgment, intuition and the ability to solve problems are usually required.
The third characteristic of technology that affects job design is interdependence of work in the organization- it determines the degree to which interaction between two or more employees (or groups of employees) is carried out, ensuring the fulfillment of the tasks assigned to them.
There are four types of job interdependencies:
folding
consistent
Related
group
Emerging Interdependence occurs when an individual worker is not required to interact with other workers to complete the work as a whole.
Sequential interdependence assumes that before one worker starts work, another must perform a series of operations to do so. What is the beginning of work for one is the end of work for another. Example: car manufacturing.
Related interdependence- a situation where the end of the work of one becomes the beginning of the work of another, and vice versa.
Example: the work of a surgeon with assistants during an operation, a goalkeeper with a player in a football team, groups of different levels in making a decision, etc.
This type of interdependence usually requires clarity and continuity in work.
Group interdependence is based on the simultaneous participation of all parties in this action and, as it were, includes all previous interdependencies together.
The group approach is used when there is high uncertainty in the work and requires from the participants a high degree of cooperation and interaction, effective communication and the ability to make group decisions.
Work design models. The work design models that exist in practice are divided into 3 groups depending on which work parameter (scale, complexity and relationships) is mainly used or subject to change.
The choice of model is influenced by intra-organizational factors: management style, trade unions, working conditions, technology, culture and structure of the organization, incentive systems and work with personnel, etc.
The work design model includes the definition of such elements of the projected work as intended for the operation; methods used, time and place of work; performance indicators and the relationship between man and machine.
These elements are determined on the basis of the Taylor system of studying movements and time. The time for the work operation and the actions required to complete it are determined.
Specialization and efficiency of performance of work are put in a basis of construction of work.
Scaling up model the number of operations or tasks performed by the worker is expanding.
Example: In the assembly of a car, a worker is assigned to install not only springs, but also shock absorbers.
The purpose of the model is to diversify and increase the attractiveness of work by adding work functions. In the design of work, the model proceeds from its despecialization, which makes it possible to establish a positive relationship between the expansion of the scope of work and job satisfaction.
Work rotation - is to move an employee from one job to another and, accordingly, to provide him with the opportunity to perform more diverse functions.
Job rotation is closely related to the scale-up model, as it is based on adding variety of tasks to increase interest in the job.
Work enrichment means adding to the work performed by the individual functions or tasks that increase the responsibility of the performer for planning, organizing, controlling and evaluating his own work.
Enrichment refers to such dimensions of work as its complexity and work relationships, which together constitute the concept of work organization.
Functions of motivation.
Motivation- is a set of driving forces that encourage a person to activities that have a specific target orientation.
The process of motivation (motivation) is built around human needs, which are the main object of influence in order to encourage a person to act. In the most general way need- this is a feeling of lack in something that has an individualized character with all the generality of manifestation. Innate needs common to all people (primary needs) are called - need. For example, the need for food, sleep, etc. Acquired (secondary) needs are associated with the existence of a person in a group, are more personalized and are formed under the influence of the environment. For example, the need for respect, for achieving results, for love, etc.
As long as the need exists, a person experiences discomfort, and that is why he will strive to find means to satisfy the need (to relieve stress). Eliminated (satisfied) need disappears, but not forever. Most needs are renewed, while changing the form of manifestation, moving to another level of the hierarchy of needs. Needs are the main source of human activity, both in practical and cognitive activities.
A need recognized and formulated by a person does not always lead to an action (motive) to eliminate it. This requires certain conditions:
the presence of a sufficiently strong desire to change the situation, to satisfy the need (I want ...) at the level of sensations that it is impossible to live like this. This condition is key and determines the direction of efforts for resource provision (material, financial, temporary) for the implementation of actions and the development of abilities, knowledge, skills to meet needs (I can ...).
Based on the foregoing, a conclusion follows. Motivation- is the creation of conditions that affect human behavior.
The motivational process includes:
assessment of unmet needs;
formulating goals aimed at meeting needs;
determination of the actions necessary to meet the needs.
Consider the elements of the motivation process in more detail.
Incentives perform the role of stimuli that affect the employee from the outside in order to encourage him to work. The impact of incentives translates existing needs into motives, provided that they correspond to each other.
as incentives individual objects, actions, other people, promises and obligations, opportunities provided, etc., that a person would like to receive for certain actions (production behavior) can act.
But incentive to action can come not only from the outside (stimulation), but also from the person himself (motive). Here the motivation is motivational structure an individual, which is formed under the influence of personal factors, upbringing, training. Motives are generated by the person himself, faced with a task or problem. For example, the motive of achievement, knowledge, etc., or the motive of fear.
motive- this is what causes certain actions caused by one's own needs, emotions, a person's position.
One and the same motive can be generated, depending on the situation, both by an external influence (the stimulus is external motivation) and by an internal motivational structure (intrinsic motivation). For example: interest as a motive can be generated by natural curiosity and / or skillful actions of the leader.
There are two ways to find ways to meet needs.
Finding a way to achieve success in realizing a need. This path activates human activity and gives the actions a target orientation. Examples of motives that determine this way of fulfilling needs: interest, career, self-affirmation, etc.
The search for ways to avoid any circumstances, object or conditions makes a person inactive, incapable of independent action. The main motives for human behavior in this situation are anxiety and a sense of fear.
Human behavior leads to a specific result, which is evaluated. The degree of satisfaction affects the behavior of a person in similar situations in the future. At the same time, people tend to repeat the behavior that is associated with satisfaction of the need, and avoid those that are associated with dissatisfaction.
The main task of the manager- create and / or activate those needs of the personnel that can be satisfied within the framework of the enterprise (subdivision) management system.
Effective personnel management involves a harmonious combination of incentives, motivation and satisfaction of the needs of employees, by influencing the content of the various stages (elements) of the motivation process.
There are a fairly large number of motivational theories that try to give a scientific explanation for the phenomenon of motivation.
hierarchy of needs according to A. Maslow;
two-factor theory of F. Herzberg;
McClelland's theory of three needs.
1. Abraham Maslow identifies 5 hierarchical levels of needs. Satisfying the needs of the lower level leads to the activation of the needs of the higher level. So, for example, a well-fed person who feels safe develops social needs (the need for communication, love, etc.). Satisfying the need for communication with the desired social group expands the possibilities of appearing and finding ways to satisfy the need for respect, etc. Therefore, the process of motivation through needs is endless.
Ways to satisfy primary needs are obvious and, as a rule, are associated with the organization (creation) of a system of material incentives. The higher and more diverse, according to L. Maslow, the level of needs of employees (their motivational structure), the more difficult it is to find ways to satisfy them.
The manager is required to have a special approach to managing creative people, which involves non-standard and diverse solutions in the field of motivation.
It must be remembered that the possibility of influencing an employee on the part of management is determined by how much the manager in the eyes of employees is perceived as a source of satisfaction of their needs.
2. Friederik Herzberg all factors influencing human activity in a production situation, divided into motivating and "health" factors (hygienic factors).
Motivating factors contribute to the growth of the degree of job satisfaction and are considered as an independent group of needs, which can be generally called the need for growth: the need for achievement, recognition, work itself, etc.
Social needs
Give employees jobs that allow them to communicate.
Create a team spirit in the workplace.
Hold periodic meetings with subordinates.
Do not try to break up informal groups that have arisen if they do not cause real damage to the organization.
Create conditions for social activity of members of the organization outside of its framework.
Respect needs
Offer subordinates more meaningful work.
Provide them with positive feedback on the results achieved.
Appreciate and reward the results achieved by subordinates.
Involve subordinates in goal setting and decision making.
Delegate additional rights and powers to subordinates.
Promote subordinates through the ranks.
Provide training and retraining that enhances competencies.
Needs for self-expression
Provide subordinates with learning and development opportunities that enable them to reach their full potential.
Give subordinates difficult and important work that requires their full dedication.
Encourage and develop creative abilities in subordinates.
"health" factors are the factors of the environment in which the work takes place. They can be seen as a need to eliminate/avoid difficulties. The absence of these factors causes a feeling of irritation, dissatisfaction. The presence of environmental factors provides normal working conditions and, as a rule, does not contribute to the activation of human activity. For example, comfortable working conditions, normal lighting, heating, etc., working hours, wages, relationships with management and colleagues.
Conclusions:
Salary, as a rule, is not a motivating factor.
To eliminate the feeling of dissatisfaction, the manager needs to pay special attention to the factors of "health". In the absence of a feeling of dissatisfaction and irritation, it is useless to motivate staff with the help of "health" factors.
After the employee is provided with everything necessary to achieve the goals, the manager must concentrate all efforts on motivational factors.
3. McClelland's three-factor theory considers only three types of acquired needs that activate human activity: power, success, involvement.
There is a certain similarity of this theory with the theory of A. Maslow. The need for power and success is characteristic of people who have reached the fourth level of the hierarchy of needs - the need for respect. The need for involvement is characteristic of people who have reached the satisfaction of the third level of needs - social needs.
Unlike A. Maslow, McClelland believes that only the need for power is a motivational factor. Therefore, in practice, this theory is applicable to a greater extent for people seeking to occupy a certain position in the organization.
Process theories of motivation.These theories are based on I. Pavlov's concept that any human behavior is the result of a stimulus. Therefore, human behavior is subject to influence through the restructuring (change) of the environment or process in which the person works. Also, human behavior is determined by the result (consequences) of the type of behavior chosen in this situation.
The most popular process theories include:
Victor Vroom's expectancy theory;
the theory of justice by S. Adams;
complex theory Porter Lawler.
1. In accordance with the theory of expectations, motivation is considered as a function of three types of expectations:
the expected result of the work;
expected reward from this result;
the expected value of the reward.
The amount of effort made by a person to implement the task assigned to him will directly depend on what is the assessment of the probability of success in completing the task, as well as the probability of receiving valuable rewards for the efforts made.
The higher the degree of correspondence between actual events and expected ones, the more likely this type of behavior will be repeated.
The important practical findings are listed below.
When setting goals, the manager must clearly formulate the goal in terms of the result, as well as the criteria for evaluating the result.
To increase the likelihood of achieving the goal, the manager must provide the conditions (organizational and resource) for the successful implementation of the task.
It is necessary to distribute tasks among employees in accordance with their abilities and professional skills.
Only that remuneration will be of value to the employee, which corresponds to his structure of needs.
Only that reward will increase motivation, which follows the result achieved. The advance is not a motivating factor.
2. Theory of justice proceeds from the fact that a person subjectively evaluates the results of work and the remuneration received, comparing them with the results and remuneration of other employees. At the same time, the effort expended is subject to subjective evaluation.
If the reward is perceived as fair, the production behavior is repeated, if not, then the following human reactions are possible:
reducing the cost of their own forces ("I do not intend to give all the best for such a salary");
an attempt to increase remuneration for one's work (demand, blackmail);
overestimation of one's capabilities (decreased self-confidence);
an attempt to influence the organization or a manager in order to change the pay or workload of other employees;
1. Management levels.
The management apparatus in large firms can be divided into the following three main levels: top, middle level, grassroots (first level).
There has been a clear delineation of functions between three levels: the highest level of management is focused, first of all, on the development of strategic directions and development goals, coordination of activities on a global scale, adoption of the most important production, economic and technical decisions, profit management; the middle level is designed to ensure the efficiency of the functioning and development of the company by coordinating the activities of all departments; grass roots focused on
prompt solution of tasks on the organization of economic activity within the framework of individual structural divisions.
Top management is represented by the board of directors and the management board. The distribution of functions between them is as follows: the Board of Directors carries out the development of a general policy, the Board - its practical implementation. The board of directors (in American, British and Japanese companies; in French companies - the administrative board; in German companies - the supervisory board) is elected at the general meeting of shareholders. The number of members of the Council is determined by the company's charter and may subsequently change. The Chairman is the head of the Board of Directors.
The Management Board is formally elected by the general meeting of shareholders or shareholders, but is actually appointed by the Board of Directors and operates under its direct control. The Board is headed by the President and consists of several members who manage the areas of work assigned to them, or only take part in resolving issues at board meetings.
The Board presents general meeting shareholders' annual report, balance sheet and profit distribution project. These documents are checked by the auditors, the Board of Directors and approved by the meeting, which meets once a year.
The functions of the Board of Directors include:
development of a general strategy and long-term plans for the development of the company;
· determination of capital structure, distribution of resources, diversification of production;
mergers and acquisitions;
Implementation of intra-company coordination of activities of all departments;
· the main decisions in the field of personnel policy and social issues;
selection of employees reporting directly to senior management, as well as employees of headquarters units providing advisory services to management on various aspects of the company's activities;
control over the implementation by the executive level of decisions taken by top management;
· Evaluation of management activities.
Usually Boards of Directors do not develop decisions themselves. They only discuss and make decisions regarding the strategic directions of the company's development, on the basis of recommendations prepared in specialized committees created under the Board of Directors.
Senior management is much smaller. Even in the largest organizations, there are only a few senior managers
The work of junior superiors is coordinated and supervised by middle managers. In a large organization, there may be so many middle managers that it becomes necessary to separate this group. M. Meskon believes that two levels arise here, the first of which is called the upper level of the middle management, the second - the lowest. Typical positions of middle managers are the head of the department, the sales manager for the region, the director of the branch.
It is difficult to make generalizations about the nature of the work of a middle manager, as it varies greatly not only in different organizations but even within the same organization. Some organizations give their middle managers more responsibility, making their work somewhat similar to that of senior managers. Middle managers are often an integral part of the decision-making process. They identify problems, initiate discussions, recommend actions, develop innovative creative proposals. The nature of their work is determined to a greater extent by the content of the work of the unit than by the organization as a whole. For example, the activities of a production manager in an industrial firm mainly involve coordinating and managing the work of field managers, analyzing labor productivity data, and interacting with engineers to develop new products.
For the most part, however, middle managers act as a buffer between top and bottom managers.
The lower-level managers mainly exercise control over the fulfillment of production tasks. Managers at this level are often responsible for the direct use of resources allocated to them. Most people start their management career at this level.
Research shows that the work of grassroots leaders is stressful and filled with a variety of activities. It is characterized by frequent transitions from one task to another. The time period for implementing decisions is short. It was found that, for example, foremen spend about half of their working time in communication. They communicate a lot with their subordinates, a little with other masters and very little with their superiors.
Control functions, their classification.
Function (literally - action) in relation to management characterizestypes of management activities arising in the process of division and specialization of labor in the field of management. In any type of management activity, it is possible to single out management tasks and their processes and operations. Decision making is the primary function of management and at the same time it is an integral part of any management function.
Management functions are called management actions,aimed at solving specific production and social problems to achieve the goals of the organization. Management functions can also be defined as the types of management activities necessary for organizing and managing a particular object (organization, enterprise, division, group) in order to carry out purposeful activities to achieve the desired result. The content of the management function reflects two aspects of management activity. First, the function defines the necessary actions (what needs to be done) and, secondly, reveals the specific content of these actions (how to do it).
There are various approaches to the classification of management functions (in terms of various criteria):
According to the content of management activities:
planning;
organization;
· motivation;
· control;
coordination.
By time scale:
· strategic management;
· tactical management;
· operational management.
By stages of the management process:
goal setting
· definition of the situation;
· problem definition;
·
making managerial decisions.
According to the factors of the production process:
· product management;
· personnel Management;
· information management;
· innovation management, etc.
According to the stages of the production process:
· production preparation management;
· production process management;
· production support management;
·
product marketing management.
By control object:
· management of economic processes;
· management of socio-psychological processes;
· management of organizational processes;
·
process control.
There are other approaches to the classification of functions.
The first approach provides for the allocation of general, universal control functions. It reflects the content of the management process in any organization and does not depend on the specifics of the management object. Functions can be classified as follows: planning, organization, motivation, control.
Some authors additionally single out coordination and regulation as independent universal functions of management. The coordination function is actually carried out in the process of implementing the planning and organization functions, and the regulation function is duplicated by the control and planning functions.
The second approach is based on the primacy of criteria that determine the features of the control object. Within the framework of this approach, a system of special control functions for a specific object (production, science, other specific control objects) is distinguished, which implement the above universal control functions (in full or in part), taking into account the specifics of the object under consideration and the content of the process of managing it. Such functions are carried out by the relevant specialized divisions of the organization (enterprise).
The concept of general and specific management functions
Control functions can be divided into general and special. The number and composition of both have not been determined.
General Functions reflect the content of the management process in any organization and do not depend on the specifics of the management object. General functions are combined into the following groups: planning, organization, operational management, motivation, control and coordination.
· Planning function. It involves deciding what the organization's goals should be and what its members should do to achieve those goals. In essence, it is a definition of what is required and how to achieve it.
The plan is a complex socio-economic model of the future state of the organization. The stages of the planning process are basically universal. As for specific methods and strategies, they differ significantly. Usually, an organization forms a single plan to manage its overall activities, but within its framework, individual managers use different methods to achieve specific goals and objectives of the organization. Thus, a map of the path along which the organization must go for a specific period of time is drawn up.
There is no single planning method that fits every situation. The type of planning and the emphasis that the manager makes in the planning process depends on his position in the organizational hierarchy of the firm, i.e. the planning process is carried out according to the levels of the organization. So, strategic planning (the highest level) is an attempt to look in the long term at the fundamental components of the organization.
At the middle level of management, they are engaged in tactical planning, i.e. intermediate goals on the way to achieving strategic goals and objectives are determined. Tactical planning is essentially similar to strategic planning.
Planning is carried out at the lower level of the organization. It is called operational planning. This is the basis of the basics of planning.
All three types of plans make up a common system, which is called the general, or general, plan, or business plan for the functioning of the organization.
· organization function. It consists in establishing permanent and temporary relationships between all departments of the organization, determining the order and conditions for its functioning. It is the process of bringing together people and means to achieve the organization's goals.
The purpose of planning is to resolve uncertainty. However, as important as planning is, it is only the beginning. An organization that has a large number of different plans and does not have a coherent scheme for the structure of their implementation is doomed to failure. The fact is that the functions of planning and organization are closely related. In a sense, planning and organization go hand in hand. Regardless of the type and scale of activity, each firm must be organized in some way. There are a number of principles that should guide the performance of the organization's functions:
1) definition and specification of the company's goals that were identified in the course of planning;
2) definition of activities to achieve these goals;
3) order various tasks individuals and combining them into manageable working groups or units;
4) coordinating the various activities assigned to each group through the establishment of working relationships, including a clear definition of who is in charge, that is, each member of the group must know what he must do, the timing of the work and who supervises him;
5) unity of purpose - whether each member of the organization works for a common goal, that is, no one should work against the goals of the organization;
6) scope of control or scope of management - whether each manager in the group is responsible for the number of employees he manages.
· Operational management - decision-making, selection and approval of the best option for the implementation of the plan and approval of the developed measures for the timely elimination of unacceptable deviations in production that result from control.
· function of motivation. Human behavior is always motivated. He can work hard, with enthusiasm and enthusiasm, or he can shy away from work. Personal behavior can have any other manifestations. In all cases, you should look for the motive of behavior.
Motivation is the process of encouraging oneself and others to act in order to achieve personal and organizational goals.
The traditional approach is based on the belief that employees are just resources, assets that must be made to work effectively.
A person who has received knowledge and skills in the process of training and advanced training, the accumulation of industrial experience, wants to apply his skills in work. And the more he succeeds in this, the greater the degree of satisfaction, and, accordingly, the degree of expression of motives. In this case, the employee considers the purpose of the organization as his goals.
The desire of a person to realize himself in his business is undeniable. That's the way he's made. Where the management and organization of labor provide employees with such opportunities, their work will be highly effective, and their motives for work will be high. So, to motivate employees is to affect their important interests, to give them a chance to realize themselves in the process of work.
·
Control function.
So, an organization plan has been drawn up, its structure has been created, jobs have been filled and the motives for the behavior of employees have been determined. There remains one more component that needs to be added to the management functions, and that is control.
Control means the process of measuring (comparing) the results actually achieved with the planned ones.
Some organizations have created entire control systems. Their function is to mediate between plans and activities, i.e. the control system provides feedback between the expectations defined by the initial management plans and the actual performance of the organization.
Special features. Their appearance is due to the division of the pond in production. Special functions include management functions in the field of supply, marketing, production preparation. Every productive function and all of them together require management. Any management function is implemented in a set of management tasks, the solution of which ensures the achievement of production goals and the maintenance of processes in specified states. Special management functions affect certain aspects of production and are implemented in the functional and target subsystems of the management system.
In each special function, one can single out general management functions, or typical elements of the management cycle: forecasting and planning, organization, motivation, accounting and analysis, control.
One of the main laws of the effectiveness of human activity is the need for the division and specialization of labor, since they determine the reason for the appearance of the category “function” in management.
The emergence of management functions is associated with the horizontal division of managerial labor, as well as with the professional specialization of management workers.
The function is the content of management activity, which is characterized by 2 main features:
- Temporary logical sequence of execution of managerial work, objectively arising from the essence of the relevant activity.
- The specifics of the control object, which determines its nature and industry affiliation.
Management functions are specialized in the temporary logical sequence of management work. The sequence in time is fixed in the first type of functions, which are called general.
General and specific management functions
The division into general (universal, basic) and specific management functions is due to the emergence of a process approach in the field of building management technology.
The process approach was originally proposed by adherents of the school administration who tried to define the functions of management. The followers of this direction considered managerial functions independently of each other. The process approach considered management functions as interrelated functions.
Composition of control functions
The five functions of management were identified by Henri Fayol, who defined management as prediction, planning, organizing, disposing, coordinating and controlling.
When reviewing the current literature, several similar features can be identified:
- planning,
- organization and administration,
- motivation,
- leadership and control
- coordination and regulation,
- communication,
- research, evaluation and decision making.
Most often, the management process is presented as consisting of the main functions: planning, organization, motivation and control. These management functions are combined through the linking processes of communication and decision making. At the same time, management is considered as an independent activity, suggesting the possibility of influencing individual employees and the team in such a way that they carry out work towards achieving goals.
Planning and organizing as management functions
Planning as a management function characterizes the development and adoption of a specific resolution (in writing or verbal form), in which a specific task or goal is set for the management object. Planning is considered to provide a unified direction for the efforts of all members of the organization to achieve its common goals. This function starts the management process, so the success of operations depends on its quality.
Organization as a function implies a certain set of specialized management activities that are aimed at bringing people together to carry out joint activities. The function of organizing the implementation of the decisions made includes ensuring the implementation of decisions from the organizational side, that is, the creation of managerial relations that are able to provide the most effective communications of all elements of the managed system.
Motivation and control
The motivating function consists in the performance of work by the personnel of the enterprise, depending on the rights and obligations delegated to it, while they must comply with the adopted management decisions. Motivation is the process of motivating oneself and others to act.
With the help of the control function, you can prevent the occurrence of crisis situations. Control is a characteristic of management that allows you to identify problems and adjust the company's activities until the transformation of these problems into a crisis.
Any enterprise must have the ability to timely fix its mistakes, correcting them before they can damage the achievement of goals. At the same time, control contributes to the fight against uncertain situations of an internal and external nature (changes in legislation, social values, the emergence of new competitors, etc.).
Management functions are types of management activities that provide the formation of ways to influence the activities of the organization.
Management processes at the enterprise occur on the basis of functional distribution. The essence of management activity at all levels of management is provided by management functions.
Today, the management functions include:
planning,
organization,
motivation,
· control,
regulation.
In the Soviet Union, the following management functions were distinguished:
planning,
organization,
coordination,
stimulation,
regulation,
· control.
American scientists Albert Mescon and J. Hedouri identify four management functions:
planning,
organization,
motivation,
· control.
These management functions are linked by decision-making processes and communication.
Planning function is number one in management. Implementing it, an entrepreneur or manager, based on a deep and comprehensive analysis of the situation in which the company is currently located, formulates the goals and objectives facing it, develops an action strategy, draws up necessary plans and programs. The planning process itself makes it possible to more clearly formulate the goals of the organization and use the system of performance indicators necessary for the subsequent monitoring of results. In addition, planning provides a clearer coordination of the efforts of structural units and thus strengthens the interaction between the heads of various departments of the organization. And this means that planning is a continuous process of studying new ways and methods to improve the organization's activities due to the identified opportunities, conditions and factors. Therefore, plans should not be prescriptive but should be modified according to the specific situation.
At its core, the scheduling function answers three main questions:
Where are we at this time? Managers should evaluate the strengths and weak sides organizations in important industries such as finance, marketing, manufacturing, research and development, labor resources. All this is done with the aim of determining what the organization can realistically achieve.
Where do we want to go? By assessing the opportunities and threats in the environment, such as competition, customers, laws, political factors, economic conditions, technology, supply chain, social and cultural changes, management determines what might prevent the organization from achieving these goals.
How are we going to do it? Leaders must decide, both broadly and specifically, what the members of the organization must do to achieve the goals of the organization.
Planning is one of the means by which management provides the only direction for the efforts of all members of the organization to achieve its common goal.
Organization function- this is the formation of the structure of the organization, as well as providing everything necessary for its work - personnel, materials, equipment, buildings, funds. In any plan drawn up in an organization, there is a creation of real conditions for achieving planned goals, often this requires a restructuring of production and management in order to increase their flexibility and adaptability to requirements. market economy. When planning and organizing work, the manager determines what exactly this organization should do, when and who, in his opinion, should do it. If the choice of these decisions is made effectively, the manager gets the opportunity to translate his decisions into reality, using an important function of management as motivation.
Motivation function- this is an activity aimed at activating the people working in the organization and encouraging them to work effectively to achieve the goals set in the plans. To do this, they are provided with economic and moral stimulation, the very content of labor is enriched, and conditions are created for the manifestation of the creative potential of workers and their self-development. From the late 18th century to the 20th century, it was widely believed that people would always work better if they had the opportunity to earn more. Motivation was thus thought to be a simple matter, which boils down to the offer of appropriate monetary rewards in exchange for effort. Managers have learned that motivation is the result of a complex set of needs that are constantly changing.
Control function is a process that ensures the achievement of the goals of the organization. There are three aspects managerial control. The first aspect - setting standards - is the precise definition of a goal that must be achieved at a certain time. It is based on the plans developed during the planning process. The second aspect is the measurement of what was actually achieved in a certain period, and the comparison of what was achieved with the expected results. If these two phases are done correctly, then the management of the organization not only knows that there is a problem in the organization, it also knows the source of this problem. The third aspect is the stage at which actions are taken, if necessary, to correct serious deviations from the original plan. One of the possible actions is to review the goals so that they become more realistic and correspond to the situation. Control is a critical and complex management function. One of the most important features of control, which should be taken into account in the first place, is that control should be comprehensive.
Coordination function is the central function of management. It ensures the achievement of consistency in the work of all parts of the organization by establishing rational connections (communications) between them. The most commonly used reports, interviews, meetings, computer communications, radio and television broadcasting, documents. With the help of these and other forms of connections, interaction is established between the subsystems of the organization, resource maneuvering is carried out, unity and coordination of all stages of the management process (planning, organization, motivation and control), as well as the action of managers, is ensured.
7. Friedrich Engels "The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State". Chapter IX.
"The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State" (German: Der Ursprung der Familie, des Privateigenthums und des Staats) is a work by the German thinker Friedrich Engels (1820-1895), dedicated to the main problems of the original history, the evolution of family and marriage relations, and the analysis of decomposition processes tribal society, the formation of private property, social classes and the state. The first edition of the book appeared in Zurich in early October 1884.
The book was written by Engels within two months - from the end of March to the end of May 1884. While sorting through Marx's manuscripts, Engels discovered a detailed synopsis of L. G. Morgan's Ancient Society, compiled by Marx in 1880-1881. and containing many of his critical remarks, his own provisions, as well as additions from other sources. After reviewing this synopsis, Engels decided to write a special work, considering it "to a certain extent, the fulfillment of Marx's testament". In addition to K. Marx's notes, when working on the book, Engels drew on additional materials from his own research on the history of ancient Greece and ancient Rome, ancient Ireland, ancient Germans, and others.
Based on the material of the book by the American ethnographer and historian Lewis Morgan "Ancient society, or the study of the directions of human development from the savage state to barbarism and further to civilization" (eng. Ancient society: or, Researches in the Lines of Human Progress from Savagery through Barbarism to Civilization ), as well as on the work of other scientists, Engels in this work explores the main features of the development of the primitive communal system. The paper reveals the process of decomposition of the primitive communal system and the formation of a class society based on private property. He traces the change in the forms of marriage and family in connection with the economic progress of society, analyzes the process of decomposition of the tribal system (using the example of three peoples: the ancient Greeks, Romans and Germans) and its economic causes.
Engels further shows that the division of labor and the growth of labor productivity led to the emergence of the exchange of private property, to the destruction of the tribal system and to the formation of classes. The work shows the general characteristics of this society; the features of the development of family relations in various socio-economic formations have been clarified; revealed the origin and essence of the state.
The emergence of class contradictions, according to F. Ergels, brought the state to life as a means of protecting the interests of the ruling class.
The main conclusions reached by Engels in this work are:
· Private property, classes and the state did not always exist, but arose at a certain stage of economic development;
· The state in the hands of the ruling classes is always only an instrument of violence, oppression of the broad masses of the people;
· Classes must inevitably disappear, just as they inevitably arose in the past. With the disappearance of classes, the state will inevitably disappear.
One of the most important components of management activities, as well as the overall functioning of organizations is goal setting. It also acts as the main function leader, and stage management activity, and its structural component. Goal-setting is defined as the formulation or choice of the goal of the functioning of the organization, as well as its concretization into sub-goals and their coordination. At the same time, the interpretation of this function in control theory is ambiguous. On the one hand, it is recognized not only as "very important", but also as a determining role in management activities and in the overall functioning of the organization. The presence of reasonable, long-term goals of the organization is the main condition for its functioning, and the ability of the leader to set them is one of the most important managerial qualities. On the other hand, the goal-setting function is usually not singled out as an independent one, but is considered as part of another function - planning. Another interpretation of goal-setting is that it is considered only as the initial stage of the entire management cycle and, as it were, “precedes” it, therefore it is taken out of the system of management functions. This is partially true, but only in the sense that it emphasizes the decisive role of goal setting in management. Goal-setting, as it were, stands "outside and above" all other functions.
At the same time, both in its content and in its role in management, goal-setting is precisely a managerial function that permeates all the activities of a leader. Thus, goal-setting cannot be confined to the initial stage of management for two reasons. First, the definition of the general direction of the organization, indeed, precedes all other functions. However, in the course of all subsequent activities, there is also a reformulation and (or) formulation of new goals. This is necessary in cases where the ineffectiveness or fallacy of the originally formulated goals is revealed. At the same time, goal-setting is not the first stage of management, but, in a certain sense, a consequence of other management functions. Secondly, the specific duty of the leader is to set goals for the performers, which is also included in the entire process of organizational functioning. Further, in its content, the function of goal-setting is a complex and unfolded process in time, which has its own specific patterns that are not characteristic of other managerial functions. Finally, sometimes the goal-setting function is used as the basis for organizing the entire management, its peculiar mechanism - in the "management by goals" method. (management by objectives – MVO).
In management theory, a general description of the goal is given on the basis of one of the main provisions of the system approach, according to which it is understood as a system-forming factor of organizations. This means that it is the goal that determines the general direction of the organization's activities, its composition (both units and personnel) and structure, regulates the nature of the relationships existing in the organization between its components, and also integrates them into a coherent system. In addition, it also acts as the basis for the criteria for developing the most important strategic decisions in the organization, determines the content of planning. The nature of the goals significantly affects the overall image of the organization. The goal has a significant impact on the activities of the organization, since it determines the main priorities of its functioning.
The implementation of the goal-setting function begins with the definition of the most common goal of the organization, which is the basis for all its activities. To determine this most general goal, the concepts of "company philosophy", "firm policy" and most often "organizational mission" are used. The mission details the status of the organization, declares all the main tasks and determines the general directions of its activities and management. The role of the mission is therefore very great, especially in a free market economy, when business entities are faced with the need to choose it independently. On the contrary, under centralized management, the goals and objectives of organizations are rigidly set, dictated from above - through the system of basic planning targets. The presence of such freedom in organizations is the key to the efficiency of the economy as a whole and its viability.
In the science of management, there are no unambiguous "recipes" for determining the mission of the organization, although the implementation of one of the most general rules is considered mandatory. It consists in the fact that profit should not be formulated as the mission of the organization, although, of course, this factor is a necessary component of its goals, business objectives as such. The mission should include the formulation of more general and broad, socially significant goals. Profit is an internal problem of the organization. But since any organization, especially a large one, is a social and open system, it can survive if it satisfies some need that is outside of it. Textbook in this regard is, for example, the formulation of the mission of the Ford company. While retaining a leading role for profit in ensuring the viability of the company, its representatives, nevertheless, formulate the mission as "providing people with cheap transportation." This concise formulation contains all the necessary features of a correctly formulated mission: customer orientation, definition of the scope of activity, focus on broad social goals. In addition, the mission should not depend on the current state of the organization, the forms and methods of its work; on the contrary, they must themselves be determined by the mission.
The other main management function is the function forecasting. "To lead is to foresee" - this well-known expression can briefly characterize the role of forecasting in management activities and in the functioning of organizations as a whole. The same idea was repeatedly expressed by the founder of the "classical" school of administrative management A. Fayol, calling "foresight ( prevoyance ) the essence of management". This is the ability to "look forward", go beyond the cash, assess the future and take appropriate preparatory measures.
The importance of forecasting in management activities cannot be overestimated. It is one of the main and most specific prerogatives and functions of the leader. In control theory, there are two main approaches to the interpretation of the forecasting function. It is either singled out as independent, or is considered as one of the main stages in the implementation of another management function - planning. The first interpretation is more adequate. The fact is that forecasting is very specific in terms of its role in management, the originality of its content, and the presence of special forms and methods of implementation, it plays an important independent role in management. Therefore, it should be understood as one of its core functions. Forecasting is most significant and deployed most intensively when determining the goals of the organization and, in particular, during the transition from the goal to the stage of developing plans for the organization's activities. Thus, it plays the role of a link, a kind of "bridge" between the functions of goal setting and planning.
The meaning of the forecasting function in management activity is that it is a decisive factor in the transition from the strategy of "passive response" to changing external conditions to the strategy of "active anticipation" of these changes and timely preparation for them, and then to measures to prevent the most negative of them. Forecasting is the main means of transforming a passive management strategy into an active one, a way to replace "therapeutic" management with "preventive" one. Forecasting in management and the need to improve it have become even more relevant in connection with the situational methodology that has become widespread in recent decades. The central idea of situationism is the position that any organization is an open system that adapts to its diverse external and internal environment. The main causes of what happens inside the organization lie outside it. Therefore, concepts such as adaptation and external environment. In turn, the adaptation itself can be of two main types: situational adaptation when environmental conditions change and prospective (proactive), based on the detection and early consideration of environmental change trends. In this case, control is increasingly based on the type of so-called advanced control. (proactive management).
In this regard, in order to disclose the content of the forecasting function, it is necessary to refer to the concept of the external environment of the organization. It is this function that is the main object of forecasting, and its fundamental variability is the main reason for the existence of this function as a whole. To survive and develop successfully, an organization must be able to adapt to these external changes; but for this, in turn, it is necessary to predict them as well.
The external environment as a source of changes and as an object of forecasting has two components - the environment of direct and the environment of indirect impact. The direct impact environment includes factors that directly affect the activities of the organization and are equally directly affected by its activities. These include human resources, suppliers, laws, institutions state regulation, consumers, competitors. The indirect impact environment consists of factors that may not have a direct, immediate impact on the organization's operations, but still indirectly affect it (and quite strongly, and sometimes decisively). These are factors of the state of the economy, scientific and technological achievements, socio-cultural and political factors, international events, etc.
The difficulties of forecasting in an environment that includes a large number of factors (also very complex in themselves) increase dramatically due to the fact that they are not isolated from each other, but are closely interconnected and intertwined. This results in a number of generalizing characteristics of the external forecasting environment - interconnectedness, mobility, complexity and uncertainty.
interconnectedness environmental factors - the level of force with which a change in one factor affects other factors.
Mobility environment - the rate at which changes occur in the organization's environment.
Complexity external environment - the number of factors to which the organization is obliged to respond, as well as the level of variability and complexity of each factor.
Uncertainty the external environment is a function of the amount of information that the organization (or its leader) has and confidence in its reliability about each factor and their combination.
So, organizations and their leaders must not only respond effectively to changes in the external environment, but also be able to predict its trends in order to ensure the survival of organizations and the achievement of their goals.
Along with this, another important function is planning. The concept of planning in relation to management activities has two main meanings, which can be described as "broad" and "narrow". In its broad interpretation, the planning function includes a number of other functions, including those already considered - setting goals, forecasting, as well as organizing execution, etc. Even such a seemingly sharply different function from planning as control is also considered in theory as a planning component. G. Kunz and S. O "Donnell note that planning and control are "Siamese twins": control without a work plan and criteria for their implementation is impossible, but a plan that is not supported by subsequent control will remain only a plan. The other connection is similar function - decision-making with planning. It is sometimes even defined through the decision-making function: "Planning is, in fact, a choice. The need for it arises only when an alternative course of action is discovered. "Planning is a system of pre-made decisions." Planning, therefore, is included in all other management functions, acts as their necessary component, which is why it is customary to talk about its "omnipresence ". Planning at the same time organizes all other functions, giving them, and hence the entire management as a whole, the necessary degree of organization. A broad interpretation of planning is the basis of one of the modern and most promising approaches to organizing management activities - the basis "strategic planning".
In a narrower and more specialized sense, planning is considered as a stage, a phase of the management cycle, localized between the stages of forecasting and organization of execution. These two interpretations do not contradict each other and are complementary. The ambiguity of the concept of planning is a natural consequence of the real and close relationship of all managerial functions, their "interpenetration" into each other. All of them form an organic integrity and are presented in unity. This gives management its real life complexity and inconsistency. Any analytical allocation of certain aspects of management, its main functions is conditional. It is justified only within certain limits, for example, for a detailed acquaintance with the content of managerial activity.
Essence planning lies in the fact that it allows you to optimally coordinate the individual efforts of members of the organization and departments to achieve its goals. This agreement has two main aspects.
Firstly, this is the functional division of responsibilities between individual members of the organization and its divisions, the definition of their main tasks and their association with corporate goals. It - content planning.
Secondly, the chronological distribution of the tasks of divisions and individual performers in time, the definition of a rational sequence for their implementation. It - time planning, or process planning.
In the first case, the question is what the performers will do. In the second - when they should do it and in what sequence. As a result, the cumulative activity of many executive units of the organization (individuals and divisions) acquires meaningful and temporal orderliness, their efforts are synchronized, and the organization's activities acquire a holistic and coordinated character. Thus, the planning function actually provides the main task of management - organizational and therefore constitutes the essence of management as a whole. The key role of planning in management, combined with its complexity and variety of tasks, requires an understanding not only of the responsibilities of the leader, but also of the function performed by many other departments of the organization. Therefore, this function consists of three main components:
- 1) individual activities of the planning manager;
- 2) the activities of specialized units and services (as well as specially attracted consultants) for planning;
- 3) the interaction of the head with specialized planning units and the organization of the activities of these units.
Similar to the scheduling function, another function is − organizational, which is also multifaceted and has three main manifestations. The function of an organization is the general process of creation a certain organizational structure, i.e. the choice of the type of this structure, its differentiation into divisions in accordance with the goals and objectives. This process is denoted by the concept of organizational design and subsequent implementation of the selected project.
Firstly, in its course, the question of what the overall organizational structure should be, based on its mission, main goals, and external environment, is being decided.
Secondly, organization is functional separation and the subsequent coordination of the main types of work between individuals in a managed system. This is the construction of an agreed system of duties, rights, powers of executors and managers; definition of their functional roles and their coordination within the already chosen organizational structure.
Thirdly, the organization also designates certain coordinating processes, necessary for the implementation of any other management function. This is reflected, for example, in expressions such as "planning organization" or "control organization". In addition, this meaning of the concept of organization is also used to designate the processes of coordinating management functions with each other.
Along with this, there are two more extremely general meanings of the concept of organization. Organization can be seen as process and in this sense it is practically identified with managerial activity in general. Organization as result denotes one or another institutional structure - an enterprise, firm, institution, corporation, etc. The ambiguity of the concept of organization reflects the truly fundamental role of the corresponding function in management and its complexity.
The need for an organizational function is a consequence of group, joint activity as such. “People are forced to unite in groups,” writes Ch. Barnard, “in order to perform work that they cannot do individually. They join forces to achieve their personal goals due to the presence of a number of physical, biological, psychological and social restrictions ". In the process of joint activity as the basis of organizational functioning, there is an objective need to solve two main tasks.
First, it is important to distribute the entire content of the joint activity among its members in such a way that each of them contributes to it, i.e. implement functional division of labor.
Secondly, it is necessary not only to divide, but also to harmonize and organize individual "contributions" to a common goal. The need to introduce proper organization into joint activities is, therefore, the direct cause of the phenomenon of management as such. The processes of differentiation and integration within joint activities give rise to the need to manage them, i.e. organization of this activity in order to make it as holistic as possible, and therefore effective. Management is initially directed to the organization performing activities. However, the general case, most typical of modern, especially large institutions and enterprises, is a more complex picture of the organization. Between the leader and the performers, there are, as a rule, a number of intermediate levels of management. Therefore, top managers should carry out not only and even not so much the organization of execution as such, but the organization of the entire hierarchy of levels of management itself subordinate to them. Because of this, the organizational function of the leader includes two main aspects - the organization of execution and the organization of management. The second aspect is no less significant, and in many cases is dominant (the larger the organization and the higher the level of the leader, the more so).
Further, the most important role in the activities of the leader is played by the function decision making. This function is the most specific in the activities of the leader and to the greatest extent reflects its originality. It is very widely represented in management activities and permeates all other components and stages of this activity. In management theory, it has become axiomatic that the decision-making function is central a link in the entire activity of the leader. It is noted, for example, that "... decision-making is an integral part of any management ... more than anything else that distinguishes a manager from a non-manager." G. Kunz and S. O "Donnell indicate that "managers consider decision making to be their main business." M. Mescon and others generally define managerial activity through the decision-making function, noting that "the essence of management is to influence the organization and change it decision-making structures".
Core management functions are also often defined through the decision-making function. For example, planning is traditionally interpreted as "the choice of one of the alternatives for the functioning and development of the organization", and goal setting - as "the choice of the mission, goals and objectives of the organization". The position on the key role of decision-making in management activities is consistent with the prevailing empirical, everyday ideas. According to them, the essence of the leader's activity lies in the fact that he "is obliged to decide", that he is then needed in the management system in order to make decisions and take on the burden of responsibility for them. Even a general measure of the real power and influence of a leader is how much he concentrates the decision-making functions, how much he "belongs to the last word" in solving the problems of the organization.
A distinctive feature of this function is much less standardization and algorithmization compared to other control functions. In this regard, the role of subjective, actually psychological factors. There are, of course, numerous rules, procedures and decision-making methods that facilitate this process. However, every manager knows from his personal experience how important the role of non-formalizable, subjective, and often intuitive factors in decision-making processes is. Because of this, the decision-making function is the subject of study in both control theory and psychology. This is as much an organizational problem as it is a psychological one. It is the decision-making function that most clearly makes you feel that management is, of course, a science, but also an art. The analysis of the content of the decision-making function therefore includes two main, very different and closely interrelated aspects, − organizational and psychological.
It should be emphasized that the problem of managerial decisions has played an important role in the evolution of managerial thought in general. For a long time - until the appearance of the behavioral approach - the management theory was based on the postulate of rationality of behavior in general and decision making in particular. It consists in the fact that the subject (manager) must and can build his behavior and make decisions, focusing on the maximum consideration of all factors of the situation. This led to the development of the so-called rigid management schemes, the formation of the "classical theory of the firm", based on the concept of "rational man". However, in the fundamental works of C. Barnard, G. Simon, D. March, D. Olsen, D. Kahneman, it was proved that psychophysiological limitations objectively inherent in a person make strictly rational behavior and decision-making impossible, and a full account of all objective factors also basically impossible. As a result, the concept of "limited rationality" was developed, one of the main theses of which is that subjective psychological characteristics are objective, limiting behavior factors. They have an important and often decisive influence on both decision-making processes and management. As a result, a "school of decision-making" arises, which substantiated the need for a transition from rigidly rationalistic ideas to "soft" management schemes. The classical theory of the firm has given way to behavioral theory.
Currently, both in management theory and in decision theory, there are two main approaches - normative and descriptive.
The normative approach explores these processes while abstracting from subjective, psychological factors and is aimed at developing rules, procedures, a kind of ideal ways and "recipes" of decision-making. The descriptive approach, on the contrary, requires taking into account these factors as the main ones. The first approach focuses on the study of as they should decisions are made. Second - how it really happens. Modern management theory synthesizes these two approaches. Content Disclosure functions decision-making as a component of managerial activity requires organizational and normative consideration. Disclosure of psychological patterns processes management decisions requires a different approach - a descriptive approach.
Organizational analysis of the decision-making function in management activities includes the following main areas:
- - characteristic places and roles management decision processes in overall structure management activities, as well as their interaction with other management functions;
- – analysis of the main parameters the external and internal environment of the organization, necessitating the implementation of this function and having the strongest impact on it;
- - description normative process structure development of managerial decision making; definition of its main stages and phases;
- - description of the main species and classes management decisions, systematization of the forms of implementation of this function;
- – determination of the main regulatory requirements for management decisions.
Concerning roles this function in the overall structure of managerial activity, then, as noted above, it is this function that is considered as the most important and obvious prerogative of the manager. This circumstance is fixed in a kind of interdependence of the concepts of "decision-making" and "managerial activity". The decision-making function and, accordingly, the processes for its implementation act as a kind of "core", the core of all managerial-type activities, to the greatest extent embody its real complexity and responsibility. The localization of this function, its place in the overall management process is due to three main circumstances.
First, this function acts as one of the most important stages of the strategic planning process. It is localized between the phases of the analysis of strategic alternatives and the actual implementation of the strategy. The decisions developed in this case are of the greatest importance for the entire functioning of the organization, they are strategic both in the direct content and in the evaluative sense.
Secondly, the decision-making function is included as a necessary component in the implementation of all other management functions. She acts, therefore, as a kind of mechanism their implementation. For example, the definition of the goals of the organization is associated with their choice from some alternative set of them. The organizational function also involves choice its structures. The scheduling function requires choice one or another strategic option. The implementation of the control function is again organically connected with the choice of forms, methods and frequency of control.
Thirdly, any significant stage of the leader's activity is always associated with the need to assess the degree of achievability of the problems and tasks solved at it. Therefore, at the end of each stage, the manager also necessarily decides whether the initially set goals have been achieved or not, whether, therefore, it can be considered completed and proceed to the next stages. Thus, the decision-making function also plays the role of a kind of "bridge" from one stage and phase of management activity to another. That is why the decision-making function is defined as a binder.
Equally significant for management activities is another function - the function motivation. Indeed, worthy goals, long-term plans, correct decisions, good organization will be ineffective without providing motivation - the interest of performers in their implementation. Since the essence of management is "achieving results through other people", it is necessary that they want to do what is required of them. As one of the postulates of management says, "the only way to get a person to do something is to make him want it himself." Individual productivity, as well as the effectiveness of organizations as a whole, are directly and very clearly dependent on the degree of motivation of employees. Motivation can compensate for many shortcomings in other functions - for example, shortcomings in planning or organization. However, weak motivation is almost impossible to compensate and replenish with anything. Because of this, the most important function of a manager is to motivate performers - the creation, maintenance and development of employee motivation.
First, it is a characteristic of motivation performing activities. It requires the characteristics of the main motives of labor activity - what the leader should appeal to when organizing his motivational influences.
Secondly, it is a characteristic of one's own motivation for activity. head, revealing the specifics of its main patterns (management motivation).
Thirdly, this is a description of the composition, structure and content directly motivation functions as one of the main components of management activity. In real management practice, these aspects are closely interrelated.
In order to better understand the essence of the function of motivation, it is necessary to turn to one of the most general provisions theories of labor activity motivation. It consists in the fact that the very need for motivation is a direct consequence of the division of labor in joint activities. In the conditions of strictly individual activity aimed at creating a particular product, the final result of this activity, he himself and the benefits it will bring are motivating enough. Therefore, there is no need for motivation as such. In joint activity, under the influence of the division of labor, the subject is alienated from the final result. Each member of the joint activity turns into a partial worker. He does not work for the end result as a means of satisfying his needs, but for completely different reasons. For example, not a single employee of any aerospace corporation has ever used or even thinks of using final its product is spaceship. This product, the possibility of its direct use to meet the needs here, as in all other similar cases, does not play any motivational role. The real motivators are the benefits that he will receive for the performance of his duties as a part-time worker. This automatically raises the question of the system of motivation and incentives, as well as its fairness, efficiency and validity. It should really and effectively stimulate each member of the organization to fulfill the duties assigned to him by the division of labor. Ensuring performance motivation depends on how effective it will be, to what extent it will be subjectively understood and accepted by the employee as fair.
There are two initial principles for creating motivation systems.
Firstly, they should be focused not only on a part of all the needs of the employee (usually material), but on all types and types of needs inherent in him.
Secondly, they must adequately identify and take into account the real contribution of each performer to the final result and provide incentives proportional to this contribution. If the second principle involves the use of organizational means, then the implementation of the first is based on psychological ideas about the structure of a person's motivation.
In this regard, the function of motivation is considered as the most "psychological" among all other managerial functions. This, in essence, is the immediate practical psychology management. The essence of the function of motivation and the role of the leader in its provision are, therefore, in creating a system that satisfies these two specified principles. The most common, although quite understandable management error is the absolutization of material motives and incentives. Of course, within certain limits and, especially, in combination with another stimulus - the fear of punishment for not doing work, this system ("carrot and stick policy") is quite viable. The question, however, is whether it is the best. Although these incentives are very important (moreover, the main ones), they are not the only ones and do not allow, therefore, to fully realize the motivational potential of the individual.
A kind of breakthrough in understanding this fundamental position, which led to the inclusion of the problem of motivation in management theory, occurred thanks to the famous experiments of E. Mayo at one of the textile factories in Philadelphia. Their general meaning is as follows. At one of the sites, the staff turnover reached 250%, while at other similar sites it did not exceed 5–6%. Material incentives (increased wages, improved hygienic working conditions) had no effect. E. Mayo, having analyzed the situation in detail, suggested taking two 10-minute breaks during which the female workers had the opportunity to communicate with each other, i.e. meet their social communication needs. In addition, the very fact of conducting the study led to the fact that they had an idea of the social significance of their work. As a result, fluidity has practically disappeared, and productivity has increased dramatically. We emphasize that this happened solely because of the "inclusion" of social motives. From this very revealing, although very simple from the modern point of view, research began intensive motivational research in the theory and practice of management.
In order to fully, effectively and competently use the entire motivational potential, the manager must know what main categories of factors it consists of. In general psychological terms, motive understood as a conscious inner urge to activity. All incentive sources of personality activity are united by the concept motivational area. It includes the following components: personality needs, her interests, aspirations, drives, beliefs, attitudes, ideals, intentions, as well as social roles, stereotypes behaviour, social norms, rules , vital goals and values and finally worldview orientations generally. The most important place among them belongs to needs, which include a number of basic types. Without dwelling on their characteristics (since they are described in detail in the corresponding psychological textbooks), we note only two points. First, the variety of types of needs determines the extreme complexity of the motives that form on their basis. Consequently, there are many ways to influence the motivational sphere through the "connection" of various categories of needs. Secondly, any behavior, any form of labor activity is always based on not just one, but several motives. To denote this fact in psychology, there is the concept of polymotivation of behavior and activity. At the same time, certain relationships can develop between different motives - both positive (mutually reinforcing) and negative. Consequently, ensuring the motivation of labor activity should also take into account the need for consistency of motivational influences on the performer.
Plays a special role in the organization of management activities communicative function. The fact is that the very essence of management activity is connected with the need for constant coordination of the activities of the organization's departments and its individual members in order to achieve common goals. This coordination is carried out in various forms, but primarily through various contacts of members of the organization, i.e. during their communication. Everything that happens in an organization is directly or indirectly related to communication processes, so they are one of the main means of ensuring its integrity and functioning. The system of communicative exchanges, like the circulatory system of the body, permeates all the "cells" of the organization, ensuring its vital activity. In relation to the activities of the leader, it also plays an important, but rather specific role. This specificity lies in the fact that, being important in itself, the communicative function is built into the implementation of all other managerial functions; it acts as a means of their implementation, as well as mutual coordination. Therefore, the communicative function, along with the decision-making function, is considered as "binding process" in organizations.
In general terms, communication is defined as any exchange of information between people (or groups), whether it leads to mutual understanding or not. By virtue of such a general and broad definition, the content of the phenomena and processes included in the concept of "communication" is also very extensive and diverse. Hence, it becomes necessary to structure the concept of communication and identify in it those aspects that are most important for characterizing the content of the leader's activity. There are three such aspects in management theory.
First, communication common phenomenon a process that unfolds in the organizational system at all its levels and in all structures, including those not directly related to the head.
Secondly, communication as a direct manager contact practice with individual subordinates, their groups, departments of the organization.
Thirdly, communication as a special, specific control function, those. as an object of purposeful regulation by the head, as a component of managerial activity. In turn, each of these aspects includes two main plans - regulatory and organizational and subjective-psychological.
The first aspect is related to the objective organizational forms of communication, the requirements for its effective implementation, the structure of the optimal communication process. The second reveals a very strong influence on communication of the psychological characteristics of "communicators" and allows us to explain a number of its important features, including those that hinder its effective implementation. However, even taken only in its psychological part, the concept of a communicative function is also multi-valued and requires versatile disclosure. It includes three proper psychological aspects: communicative behavior leader, communication phenomena and communicative processes his activities.
The characteristics of the content of the communicative function include the following main areas:
- - definition entities and identification of the specifics of the communicative function;
- – analysis of the main species and types communications in organizational systems;
- – definition of structural components and the main stages of communication process;
- - characteristic forms of implementation communicative function;
- – analysis of characteristic difficulties and mistakes ("barriers") of the communicative function;
- - description general requirements aimed at optimizing the communicative function (principles of optimal communication).
The essence of the manager's communicative function and its main task is to ensure the optimal exchange of information within the organization between its individual divisions and individuals (as well as with the external environment). Optimality criterion at the same time, the extent to which the existing communication network contributes to the achievement of the overall goals of the organization acts. Creating effective communications is achieved in several main ways. Thus, the formulation of a clear, precise and definite goals organization, as well as its concretization into subgoals for each division, in itself "removes" many questions, makes additional clarifications redundant and optimizes communications. Adequate and detailed plan, clearly regulating the main types of work of departments and their standards, is also an effective means of settling business contacts. Next, the right choice organization type (the economy of its structure, the absence of duplicating divisions, multiple subordination in it) also contributes to the creation of an optimal communication network. Finally, an efficient system control - its fairness, understandability to subordinates, publicity, systematicity - all this eliminates "unnecessary conversations", clarifications and conflicts. Thus, it can be seen that the means of implementing the communicative function are all the main management functions (goal setting, planning, organization, control). This circumstance clearly indicates the specificity of the communicative function. On the one hand, the communicative function is the subject of special regulation by the leader. But, on the other hand, it is provided to an even greater extent not directly, but through all other management functions in the course of their implementation. There is also an inverse relationship: basically, it is through the communicative function that the leader implements all his other functions. This is the main specific feature of the function under consideration: the less it is presented as an independent one and the more it is implemented "at the expense" of other functions, the higher its own efficiency. And vice versa, it comes to the fore, requires the leader to pay special attention in cases where the "organization fails" - it works inefficiently. As G. Kunz and S. O'Donnell rightly point out in this connection, "areas of the highest concentration of information density ... are associated with those where there is little or no activity at all."
The fact that all other managerial functions of activity are realized through the communicative function makes clear the data, according to which from 50 to 90% of the total working time of the manager is filled with communications. In addition, 73% of American, 63% of British and 85% of Japanese executives consider communication to be the main obstacle to achieving high performance in their organization.
The implementation of management activities is impossible without control and correctional functions. In everyday consciousness, control is associated with verification, i.e. interpreted narrowly and inadequately. As R. Manteiffel notes, "control based only on verification ... is catastrophic." In fact, control is an extremely complex phenomenon, a kind of attribute of any management system (including organizational), a necessary means and mechanism for ensuring the effectiveness of its functioning. It is not limited to any one stage of the management cycle, for example, to the final ("verification"), but is built into all management functions, ensuring their implementation, as well as the possibility of transition from one function to another. So, G. Kunz and S. O "Donnell emphasize that "control is the flip side of planning; ... control methods are essentially planning methods; ... it is useless to try to create a system of control without a preliminary study of the plans. "With regard to another function - goal setting
P. Drucker notes: "Control and direction are synonymous." Control is an integral component of all actions and management functions. Usually it is most pronounced at the end of their implementation. It allows you to determine whether their goal has been achieved or not, and thus "gives sanction" for the transition to subsequent actions, linking all the links in the control chain into a single whole. Hence, the high significance of the control function is also obvious.
In order to be efficient and effective, control must be active. This means that it should not be reduced to a statement of detected errors or deviations, but should include means and mechanisms for correcting them. The latter is ensured by the closely related control corrective functions. While playing an important independent role and possessing a number of specific features, the correction process is nevertheless inextricably linked with the overall function of control. It acts as a stage, and a property, and a requirement for active and effective control. In this regard, these processes are considered within the framework of one function that unites them - the function of control and correction.
So, control in its broad, true sense is defined as the process of ensuring that the organization achieves its goals, and also as a phenomenon that is not local, but global in nature. It is distributed throughout the management activities.
Such a broad definition calls for detail. It includes the following main aspects:
- – control as a necessary attribute of control systems, as general principle, allowing them to achieve their goals;
- – control as needed activity component all departments and members of the organization, ensuring its effectiveness and consistency with the overall goals of the organization;
- – control as a specific prerogative of certain specialized units organizations and individuals entrusted with the responsibility of monitoring its functioning;
- – control as an aspect manager's activities, associated with the creation of these structures and their management;
- - direct control duty leader, which is realized in his individual activities, including in the system of personal, direct interactions with other members of the organization (both with managers of subordinate levels, and with ordinary performers).
The first three aspects are generally organizational in nature; the last two are directly related to the content of the control function in the activities of the head and are discussed in this chapter.
The most common, covering all other types of control, are its three main types: advancing (preliminary), current and final. phrase "leading control" somewhat unusual: how to control what has not yet happened? Where is the object of control? However, it is considered the most important type of control and is determined by the essence active, those. the most effective management strategy. It is to anticipate and predict future performance; that the main efforts should be focused not on correcting, but on preventing errors and adverse situations. Because of this, both planning and creating organizational structures, and even goal setting are seen as aspects of control. "Advanced", or preliminary, control is aimed at three areas - human, material and financial resources.
The first involves the effective selection of personnel. The second is the definition of preliminary standards for the quality of resources. The third is budget development.
Preliminary control is organizationally carried out by the implementation of the system of rules, procedures and "lines" of behavior developed at the planning stage. They act as guidelines, and partly as criteria for all other types of control. Looking to the future is the most important feature of effective control: it is better to know with 75% certainty about a mistake that will happen than with 100% certainty to detect a mistake that has already been made. A properly designed monitoring system should detect potential deviations before they occur.
Current control is implemented directly in the process of execution of work and is usually timed to coincide with the end of any technological phase of the process of organizational functioning. It most fully embodies the already noted feedback principle, which allows not only to assess the quality of the work, but also to make immediate adjustments to them and thereby contribute decisively to the achievement of goals.
Final control is carried out after the completion of certain types of work. His role is twofold. First, on its basis, the question of their quality is finally resolved (with all the ensuing consequences for the performers). Secondly, various evaluation procedures depend on it; resolving issues of "punishment - encouragement", as well as the organization of stimulation and motivation. Therefore, it performs an important motivating function. Therefore, from a psychological point of view, the leader should pay the most attention to this particular type of control, master the methods and rules of final control as a motivating tool.
Control is further subdivided into partial (selective, local, "point") and full (general, global). In the first case, it affects only some, as a rule, the most important technological operations and links; concerns only certain aspects of organizational activity. In the second case, all the main actions of the performers, all performance indicators and (or) all subdivisions of the managed system are subject to control. More effective is the second type of control, since it satisfies the basic organizational rule of control, according to which control must be comprehensive. Here, however, the problem of the organization of control arises - the problem of its economy. The fact is that the more control approaches the "ideal of inclusiveness", the more expensive it becomes and vice versa. Control costs have to be taken into account as an important "cost item" and commensurate with the overall efficiency of the organization. This raises the question of the need for a rational proportion - a compromise between the cost of control and the measure of its completeness. Finding such a compromise is the most important skill of a leader in the implementation of his control function. One of the effective means used for this is a special form of control, denoted by the concept strategic control. Its essence is as follows. To have a complete picture of the state of affairs in the organization, you do not need to control everything. It is enough to control only certain - strategic points. The network of such points results, gives information about many other - more local types of work in the organization. It should, therefore, become the basis for the development of a system of control measures. By controlling these strategic points, the leader will simultaneously (albeit indirectly, but effectively) control all other aspects of the organization's activities. There are such points in every - even the largest, most complex system, including, for example, the country's economy as a whole. Here they will be, for example, the volume of cargo turnover by rail and other modes of transport, the volume of energy consumed. The fall in their indicators is an objective sign of the economy's troubles.
Further, according to systematic stands out selective ("random" and, as a rule, unexpected for the person being checked) and planned control. The latter is provided for by a pre-developed plan of control measures and inspections, which is brought to the attention of subordinates. The behavior of the controlled, their attitude to control and, naturally, the results of control in these two cases differ significantly. By sign volume control can be either individual, or group, or corporate. By focus control is divided into efficient and procedural. In the first case, the measure of achieving the set goals is determined, and in the second, the process of achieving them is also controlled. By degree severity There are also two types of control - quantitative and qualitative (expert). If the work presupposes the existence of quantifiable standards, then they should be used as benchmarks and control takes the form of a quantitative assessment. If the work is such that its effectiveness is difficult or impossible to "change", a qualitative assessment is made through the export method.
The characterization of the control function requires, further, the introduction of the concept overall control process. It fixes the presence of three mandatory components (and at the same time stages) in any control process:
- – system development standards and criteria ;
- - comparison with them of real results of work;
- – implementation of the results of this comparison corrective events.
These components form an invariant sequence of control procedures, regardless of their varieties.
The stage of developing performance standards and defining evaluation criteria is a continuation and completion of the planning phase. It establishes two types of evaluation criteria - content guidelines (quality, performance) and time references. The main requirements of this stage are: the consistency of the criteria with the corporate goals, their realism and familiarization of the executors with them. The next stage - comparison of real results with standards (criteria) is the core of control as a whole. The apparent simplicity of this stage is deceptive. It comes with a significant difficulty. The fact is that the complete coincidence of results and standards is a rarity and is more the exception than the rule. Deviations almost always exist, but they can either be acceptable or not. Therefore, the problem arises of developing not so much standards as such, but certain boundaries of their permissible variations ("range of standards", tolerances). In this regard, in control theory formulated "principle of exclusion": the control system should work when it detects not all, but only unacceptable deviations from the standards. The presence of a range of standards creates the preconditions for one of the most frequent and typical mistakes of a manager. It has its causes psychological factors - for example, a positive attitude towards the performer, and sometimes fear of him. This is an unjustified extension of the acceptable range of standards for performers. Control in such cases loses its meaning. In the same connection, it is necessary to note the mistake of "double standards" for "favorites" and "outcasts". As a consequence of this, either protectionism or hyper-demanding (“nitpicking politics”) arises.
- 1. If there are no deviations or they are within the acceptable range, there is no need for any additional corrective actions. However, even their very absence is very important for the performer, being an indicator of the effectiveness of his work, an incentive for it and a factor of implicit encouragement.
- 2. Actions aimed at elimination of deviations: they are aimed at bringing the parameters of activity in line with previously established standards. In this case, the following rule is common: the earlier deviations are noticed, the less time-consuming these actions will be and the higher their efficiency. This implies another important requirement for control - it must be timely, and even better - operational.
- 3. Actions aimed at revision of standards and evaluation criteria. They are implemented in the event that the obvious unrealistic standards are revealed, the impossibility of their mass implementation by the "average worker". This situation is not rare; it is due to errors in planning and rationing. There is a psychological difficulty here. It consists in the fact that to take this kind of action means for the leader to admit his mistakes, since he is responsible for the existing system of standards. The ability to do this is one of the important features of a leader, and his inertia in this regard gives rise to numerous conflicts both in his relations with his subordinates and between the latter.
- 4. Actions that form the basis of a specific "corrective behavior". They are not aimed at correcting a mistake, but at the person who made it. At the same time, the leader must rely on psychological and, mainly, on individual characteristics performers.
- 5. Assessment actions can be of two types: current and final assessment. The range of evaluation actions is very wide and is determined by the manager's system of opportunities for material and moral incentives, as well as his authority to implement certain sanctions.
The control and correction function is usually interpreted as the final one in the overall management process, as the "last" from the list of classical administrative functions. However, this does not mean that the entire system of managerial functions is thus exhausted. Equally traditional is the allocation of another large group of management functions - personnel. In order to better understand the role and place of personnel functions in the activities of the manager, to determine their specificity in relation to all other functions, it is advisable to formulate the following initial provisions.
Firstly, the entire system of personnel functions is differentiated in the activities of the head in a different way than the system of administrative functions, criterion. Administrative functions correlate with the actual activity "dimension" - with the main tasks of the organization of managerial activity. Personnel functions correspond to the second main "dimension" of managerial activity, associated with the impact on its main subject - people, the organization's personnel.
Secondly, the set of basic personnel functions is relatively independent of specific features organizations and includes invariant set permanent tasks and duties of the manager (recruitment, selection, selection of personnel, placement of personnel, professional orientation and adaptation, professional training and retraining, assessment and certification of personnel, professional career management, personnel stabilization, reduction, dismissal, etc.). Such constancy and relative independence from the type of organizations gives the system of personnel functions stability and certainty; allows us to consider it as an independent and peculiar category of management functions.
Thirdly, the implementation of each of the personnel functions is subject to an interesting pattern, which can be described as the "rule of a holistic management cycle." This means that the implementation of each of the personnel functions requires the implementation of all the "classic" functions already considered, their integral cycle.
For example, the solution of such an important personnel task as the staffing of an organization begins with goal setting. A certain goal is always formulated, which consists in understanding the need for personnel of one or another professional level of qualification. Further planned work on its implementation, including, among other things, forecast staff dynamics. The solution of this problem is also associated with the function execution organization, since the recruitment itself is carried out on the basis of the existing structure of the organization or on the basis of ideas about the structure being created. Staff recruitment is inextricably linked with the creation motivation, as well as providing the communicative space of the organization. Finally, the final stage of its solution is control real picking results. According to a similar "scenario", including the deployment of the entire system of administrative functions, other tasks of a personnel nature are also being solved.
Fourthly, the solution of the entire spectrum of personnel problems is not identical to the system of personnel functions of the head. The volume of personnel work is so great that its implementation is entrusted to a number of specialized departments and services of the organization, and consideration of their activities goes far beyond the activities of the leader himself. However, all this activity is carried out (or, at least, should be carried out) under the coordinating influence of the head, which is the content of his personnel functions. The specificity of personnel functions, their special role in the work of organizations, as well as their close and organic relationship with each other were the reasons that by now their system has taken shape in an independent direction of management theory and practice - personnel management, personnel management.
Along with the system of personnel functions, the system of production and technological functions. The activity of any organization is ultimately aimed at creating certain products. By their nature, they are extremely diverse and, accordingly, the content of the activity for their creation is different. This is the actual creation of any product (production organizations), and education and training of personnel (educational organizations), and the provision of services (service organizations), and construction (construction organizations), and the provision of medical care (health organizations), etc. However, in any case, each organization includes as its most important component operating system. It represents the actions that are aimed directly on production, on the creation of its final product, which has real value for its external environment. The operating system is considered the main component of organizations: it is their "foundation". All other aspects of the organization's activities, including management functions, serve the tasks of providing an operating subsystem - the tasks of producing goods, services, knowledge, etc. Its coordination is the direct practice of management, its daily content. To designate this area of activity of the manager, a number of related concepts have developed: the production function, technological functions, the function of operational production management, the function of providing the operating system, etc.
Since any production implies the need for its development and modification, this group also includes innovative function. Finally, since any production is inseparable from the need to sell products, it is also considered in the same connection. marketing function.
Due to the fact that the production and technological functions are directly aimed at the implementation of actions and the creation of the final product, they all correlate with the third main "dimension" of managerial activity. This is the third "dimension" of managerial activity, supplementing the two already considered (administrative and personnel), and as a result forms a common "space" of managerial activity. It gives administrative and personnel functions a direct practical focus and further complicates the structure of management activities. Very often, a leader (especially one who is not familiar with the existence of management theory) may not be aware of the existence of any functions other than production and technological ones: he "just works", i.e. busy with them. The seeming self-evidence of this provision, by the way, was one of the main obstacles to separating the theory of management as an independent scientific discipline from management practice. However, by fulfilling them, he objectively implements all other managerial functions. Moreover, to the extent that these functions stand out from the "daily routine" as independent tasks, the success of the performance of the production functions themselves depends. At the same time, it is the latter that retain their primacy and act for the leader as the direct content of his activity.
This system of functions in management theory is given relatively less attention than the "classical" - administrative, organizational and personnel functions. The reason for this is that production functions are determined to a much greater extent by the specific content of the activities of organizations, and not by the general laws of management. At the same time, there are a number of general aspects in the implementation of the system of production and technological functions. They are not related to the content of the activity, but characterize its basic organizational principles, as well as its psychological characteristics. One of the main among them is the following regularity. Measure of representation in the activities of the head of the system of production functions very strongly and clearly depends on his hierarchical position in the organization and, in fact, is determined by him. The higher this position is, the less the manager is occupied with the direct implementation of production functions. On the contrary, the lower the level of management, the greater (and at the lowest levels - and the main) role in management activities these functions play. In other words, the expression of this function inversely proportional hierarchical position of the manager in the general continuum of management. This provision is at the same time a kind of imperative - a requirement for the organization of management activities at different levels. The higher the level of the manager, the less must engage in operational work and vice versa. Failure to comply with this requirement leads to the fact that the head begins to perform functions unusual for him to the detriment of the main ones. He "gets bogged down in the routine", "sprayed over trifles", etc.
In organizational and psychological terms, the essence of production and technological functions is as follows. Any production is characterized by a certain sequence of repetitive and largely standardized production cycles. They are denoted by the concepts of the so-called product cycles, production cycles. Each of them requires operational regulation, management of its process. Therefore, in relation to each of them, a complete management cycle is also implemented. For example, any production task associated with the manufacture of a product, as the first stage of its solution, requires the formulation of an appropriate goals and its communication to performers. The next stage is just as objective. planning, as well as all other stages following it - decision making about the ways and possibilities of achieving the goal; ensure motivation performance, organization of execution (for example, providing raw materials); control for execution, corrections.
Consequently, no matter what the "scale" of this or that production cycle, the basic regularity is always preserved. It consists in the fact that in relation to all the main production tasks, the entire system of managerial functions (goal-setting, planning, decision-making, motivation, organization, control) that we have already considered is implemented. They are, however, not carried out macrointervals time and do not correlate with the organization of management as a whole, but are implemented in temporary microintervals, limited to a specific production task. Production functions are, therefore, complex, integrating other management functions. The latter, however, are presented in production functions not in their full form, but, as it were, in an abbreviated, reduced form - only to the extent that it is necessary and sufficient for solving actual production problems. All production functions, especially operational ones, have another important feature that determines their complexity and inconsistency. With all the repetition, standardization of the main production operations, their stereotyping, and often "routine", their implementation is carried out in constantly changing external and internal conditions. As a rule, they are of a negative nature and thus complicate the normative activity. These are the lack of raw materials, and poor working conditions, and lack of planning, and the lack of executors, and much more. All this is very well known and constitutes the essence of the difficulties faced by operational management. The production activity itself and each of its individual cycles is, therefore, a typical example of "repetition without repetition." As a result, there is a contradictory combination of constancy and variability of conditions, regulatory requirements and specific tasks. The removal of this contradiction, bringing the goals and objectives of production into line with constantly, and often unpredictably changing conditions, determine the content of operational management.
All the considered types and categories of managerial functions form the basis of the manager's activity and thus give a general idea of it. At the same time, another category of functions is objectively represented in the structure of the manager's activity. It - integration, strategic, representative and stabilization functions. The peculiarity of these functions lies in the fact that they do not directly correspond to any of the main aspects (dimensions) of management activity - administrative, personnel, production and technological, but include components of all these three dimensions at the same time. In their content, they are derived from all other groups of functions, they are built on their basis and, therefore, presuppose their co-organization. Such a complex and derivative nature requires their understanding as "secondary" but in relation to the three groups considered.
All these features of derivative functions are most clearly manifested in the control function, which is denoted by the concept integration function (in some cases it is also referred to as coordinating). Its content is as follows. The process of organizational functioning has its own internal logic, the laws of the organization, and its main components should be agreed between themselves. The more fully this is achieved, the higher the efficiency of organizational functioning. However, for this, the very activity of the leader must also be internally organized; all its main components - functions should not contradict each other, but, on the contrary, should be interconnected and coordinated. Therefore, it is necessary to harmonize the main functions.
The implementation of this function imposes the most complex psychological requirements on the manager: to see the organization as a whole; distinguish and highlight its main and key "points"; comprehensively take into account the consequences of any, even local, managerial impact. All this, in turn, presupposes the presence of a specific intellectual quality - systematic thinking leader.
The integration function is closely related to another function − strategic. The boundary between them is rather conditional, since they include a number of common elements. However, there are also differences between them. The essence of the strategic function is determined by its two main features.
The first is that the strategic function from the content side is the implementation of the process strategic planning considered. It synthesizes all the main strategic functions, starting with goal setting (defining the mission of the organization) and ending with the organization of a control system for the implementation of strategic plans. By including them, the strategic function ensures their integrity and coherence.
The second feature is that it is usually differentiated from the functions hierarchically subordinated to it - tactical and operational. As we move along the continuum of management - from its base to the top - in management activity, the specific gravity tactical and especially operational tasks and functions. At the same time, the share of common tasks and functions of a global - strategic nature is increasing. Therefore, the most characteristic of top managers is that they manage not the execution as such, but the management of this performance by other managers of their subordinate levels.
representative function usually treated as independent and does not belong to any of the main groups of functions. In exercising this role, the leader represents the interests of the organization and (or) group he leads at various levels of the intra-organizational vertical, as well as in various interactions of the organization with the external environment. For example, the head of a department represents his interests at the level of the directorate (intraorganizational representation). The director of the organization, participating in the work of higher authorities, represents the interests of the entire organization (interorganizational representation).
This function is based on a peculiar mechanism - the mechanism personifications leader of corporate interests and goals, positions of members of the organization, features and traditions inherent in it. Representation - "personification" by the head of the organization will be the more effective, the more his position reflects the main characteristics of the organization he leads, all aspects of its life and activities.
Concluding the consideration of derivative functions, we also note a number of aspects of managerial activity, which are usually denoted by the concept of "function", although they have a fairly broad, and therefore not quite definite content. These are administrative, stabilization, disciplinary functions. Their breadth and, in part, their lack of certainty are related to their complex nature. So, administrative function (from lat. administration - manage) represents, in essence, the entire set of organizational and activity functions, and the process of administration itself acts as the deployment of their system. Further, stabilization function is also based on many other areas of work of the head and the functions of his activities. All of them are integrated at the same time with a specific goal - to maintain the stability of intra-organizational functioning and ensure the "survival" of the organization in a dynamically changing external environment. The importance of this task determines the complexity of the ways and forms of solution. It assumes reliance not only on administrative functions, but also requires measures to stabilize the staff (personnel functions), as well as to improve and update technology (production and technological functions). Finally, disciplinary function - in its broad and adequate sense - is not limited to special measures to maintain discipline as such. It provides a wide range of tasks and functions for creating a high organizational culture, which is the most effective means of ensuring a positive internal organizational environment.
So, the integration, strategic, representative functions, as well as other functions similar to them in terms of the complexity of the structure - administrative, stabilization and disciplinary - form the final - fourth group in the general system of management functions. Together with three other groups, they reveal the content and structure of management activities in general.
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