Hierarchical organization of various layers of society. Social stratification and mobility. Social (stratification) structure refers to the stratification and hierarchical organization of various layers of society. Classes of social stratification
Social (stratification) structure refers to the stratification and hierarchical organization of various layers of society, as well as the set of institutions and the relationship between them. The term “stratification” comes from the Latin word stratum - layers, layer. Strata are large groups of people who differ in their position in the social structure of society.
All scientists agree that the basis of the stratification structure of society is the natural and social inequality of people. However, on the question of what exactly is the criterion for this inequality, their opinions differ. Studying the process of stratification in society, K. Marx called such a criterion the fact of a person’s possession of property and the level of his income. M. Weber added to them social prestige and the subject’s affiliation with political parties and power. Pitirim Sorokin considered the cause of stratification to be the uneven distribution of rights and privileges, responsibilities and duties in society. He also argued that social space has many other criteria for differentiation: it can be carried out according to citizenship, occupation, nationality, religious affiliation, etc. Finally, supporters of the theory of structural functionalism proposed to rely on those social functions who perform certain social strata in society.
Historically, stratification, that is, inequality in income, power, prestige, etc., arises with the birth of human society. With the advent of the first states, it becomes tougher, and then, in the process of development of society (primarily European), it gradually softens.
In sociology, there are four main types of social stratification - slavery, castes, estates and classes. The first three characterize closed societies, and the last type - open ones.
The first system of social stratification is slavery, which arose in ancient times and still persists in some backward regions. There are two forms of slavery: patriarchal, in which the slave has all the rights of the youngest member of the family, and classical, in which the slave has no rights and is considered the property of the owner (a talking tool). Slavery was based on direct violence, and social groups during the era of slavery were distinguished by the presence or absence of civil rights.
The second system of social stratification should be recognized as the caste system. A caste is a social group (stratum) in which membership is transferred to a person only by birth. A person's transition from one caste to another during his lifetime is impossible - for this he needs to be born again. A classic example of a caste society is India. In India there are four main castes, which, according to legend, originated from different parts of the god Brahma:
a) brahmins - priests;
b) kshatriyas - warriors;
c) vaishyas - merchants;
d) Shudras - peasants, artisans, workers.
A special position is occupied by the so-called untouchables, who do not belong to any caste and occupy a lower position.
The next form of stratification consists of estates. An estate is a group of people that has rights and responsibilities enshrined in law or custom that are inherited. Usually in society there are privileged and unprivileged classes. For example, in Western Europe, the first group included the nobility and clergy (in France they were called that way - the first estate and the second estate) and the second group included artisans, merchants and peasants. In Russia before 1917, in addition to the privileged (nobility, clergy) and unprivileged (peasantry), there were also semi-privileged classes (for example, the Cossacks).
Finally, another stratification system is class. The most complete definition of classes in scientific literature was given by V.I. Lenin: “Classes are large groups of people that differ in their place in a historically defined system social production, according to their relationship (mostly enshrined and formalized in laws) to the means of production, according to their role in public organization labor, and consequently, according to the methods of obtaining and the size of the share of social wealth that they have.” The class approach is often contrasted with the stratification approach, although in fact class division is only a special case of social stratification.
Depending on the historical period in society, the following classes are distinguished as the main ones:
a) slaves and slave owners;
b) feudal lords and feudal-dependent peasants;
c) the bourgeoisie and the proletariat;
d) the so-called middle class.
Since any social structure is a collection of all functioning social communities taken in their interaction, the following elements can be distinguished in it:
a) ethnic structure (clan, tribe, nationality, nation);
b) demographic structure (groups are distinguished by age and gender);
c) settlement structure (urban residents, rural residents, etc.);
Social (stratification) structure refers to the stratification and hierarchical organization of various layers of society, as well as the set of institutions and the relationship between them. The term “stratification” comes from the Latin word stratum - layers, layer. Strata are large groups of people who differ in their position in the social structure of society.
All scientists agree that the basis of the stratification structure of society is the natural and social inequality of people. However, on the question of what exactly is the criterion for this inequality, their opinions differ. Studying the process of stratification in society, K. Marx called such a criterion the fact of a person’s possession of property and the level of his income. M. Weber added to them social prestige and the subject’s affiliation with political parties and power. Pitirim Sorokin considered the cause of stratification to be the uneven distribution of rights and privileges, responsibilities and duties in society. He also argued that social space has many other criteria for differentiation: it can be carried out by citizenship, occupation, nationality, religious affiliation, etc. Finally, supporters of the theory of structural functionalism proposed as a criterion to rely on those social functions that are performed by certain social strata in society.
Historically, stratification, i.e., inequality in income, power, prestige, etc., arises with the emergence of human society. With the advent of the first states, it becomes tougher, and then, in the process of development of society (primarily European), it gradually softens.
In sociology, there are four main types of social stratification - slavery, castes, estates and classes. The first three characterize closed societies, and the last type - open ones.
The first system of social stratification is slavery, which arose in ancient times and still persists in some backward regions. There are two forms of slavery: patriarchal, in which the slave has all the rights of the youngest member of the family, and classical, in which the slave has no rights and is considered the property of the owner (a talking tool). Slavery was based on direct violence, and social groups during the era of slavery were distinguished by the presence or absence of civil rights.
The second system of social stratification should be recognized as the caste system. A caste is a social group (stratum) in which membership is transferred to a person only by birth. A person's transition from one caste to another during his lifetime is impossible - for this he needs to be born again. A classic example of a caste society is India. In India there are four main castes, which, according to legend, originated from different parts of the god Brahma:
a) brahmins - priests;
b) kshatriyas - warriors;
c) vaishyas - merchants;
d) Shudras - peasants, artisans, workers.
A special position is occupied by the so-called untouchables, who do not belong to any caste and occupy a lower position.
The next form of stratification consists of estates. An estate is a group of people that has rights and responsibilities enshrined in law or custom that are inherited. Usually in society there are privileged and unprivileged classes. For example, in Western Europe, the first group included the nobility and clergy (in France they were called that way - the first estate and the second estate) and the second - artisans, merchants and peasants. In Russia before 1917, in addition to the privileged (nobility, clergy) and unprivileged (peasantry), there were also semi-privileged classes (for example, the Cossacks).
Finally, another stratification system is class. The most complete definition of classes in the scientific literature was given by V.I. Lenin: “Classes are large groups of people that differ in their place in a historically defined system of social production, in their relationship (mostly fixed and formalized in laws) to the means of production, in their role in the social organization of labor, and, consequently, according to the methods of obtaining and the size of the share of social wealth that they have.” The class approach is often contrasted with the stratification approach, although in fact class division is only a special case of social stratification.
Depending on the historical period in society, the following classes are distinguished as the main ones:
a) slaves and slave owners;
b) feudal lords and feudal-dependent peasants;
c) the bourgeoisie and the proletariat;
d) the so-called middle class.
Since any social structure is a collection of all functioning social communities taken in their interaction, the following elements can be distinguished in it:
a) ethnic structure (clan, tribe, nationality, nation);
b) demographic structure (groups are distinguished by age and gender);
c) settlement structure (urban residents, rural residents, etc.);
d) class structure (bourgeoisie, proletariat, peasants, etc.);
e) vocational and educational structure.
In the most general form in modern society Three stratification levels can be distinguished: highest, middle and lowest. In economically developed countries, the second level is predominant, giving society a certain stability. In turn, within each level there is also a hierarchically ordered set of various social strata. A person who occupies a certain place in this structure has the opportunity to move from one level to another, increasing or decreasing his social status, or from one group located at a certain level to another, located at the same level. This transition is called social mobility.
Social mobility sometimes leads to the fact that some people find themselves at the junction of certain social groups, while experiencing serious psychological difficulties. Their intermediate position is largely determined by their inability or unwillingness, for whatever reason, to adapt to one of the interacting social groups. This phenomenon of a person being, as it were, between two cultures, associated with his movement in social space, is called marginality. A marginal is an individual who has lost his previous social status, is deprived of the opportunity to engage in his usual activities and, moreover, has found himself unable to adapt to the new socio-cultural environment of the stratum within which he formally exists. The individual value system of such people is so stable that it cannot be replaced by new norms, principles, and rules. Their behavior is characterized by extremes: they are either overly passive or very aggressive, easily transgress moral standards and are capable of unpredictable actions. Among the marginalized there may be ethnomarginals - people who found themselves in a foreign environment as a result of migration; political marginals - people who are not satisfied with legal opportunities and legitimate rules of socio-political struggle: religious marginals - people who are outside the confession or who do not dare to make a choice between them, etc.
The qualitative changes taking place in the economic basis of modern Russian society have entailed serious changes in its social structure. The currently emerging social hierarchy is characterized by inconsistency, instability and a tendency to significant changes. The highest stratum (elite) today can include representatives of the state apparatus, as well as owners of large capital, including their top - financial oligarchs. The middle class in modern Russia includes representatives of the entrepreneurial class, as well as knowledge workers, highly qualified managers (managers). Finally, the lowest stratum consists of workers of various professions engaged in medium and low-skilled labor, as well as clerical workers and public sector workers (teachers and doctors in government and municipal institutions). It should be noted that the process of social mobility between these levels in Russia is limited, which may become one of the prerequisites for future conflicts in society.
In the process of change social structure In modern Russian society, the following trends can be distinguished:
1) social polarization, i.e. stratification into rich and poor, deepening social and property differentiation;
2) massive downward social mobility;
3) massive change of place of residence by knowledge workers (the so-called “brain drain”).
In general, we can say that the main criteria that determine a person’s social position in modern Russia and his belonging to one or another stratification level are either the size of his wealth or his affiliation with power structures.
People unite in the process of their life, and human society represents many different social communities and groups.
A social community is a really existing, empirically fixed set of people, characterized by relative integrity and acting as an independent subject of historical and social action.
Signs of a social community
Similarity of living conditions.
Commonality of needs.
Availability joint activities.
Formation of your own culture.
Social identification of members of a community, their self-ascription to this community.
Social communities are distinguished by an unusual variety of specific forms and types. They may vary:
- by quantitative composition: from several individuals to numerous masses;
- by duration of existence: from minutes and hours (for example, train passengers, theater audience) to centuries and millennia (for example, ethnic groups (from the gr. ethnos - people, nation);
- according to the degree of connection between individuals: from relatively stable associations to very amorphous, random formations (for example, a queue, a crowd, an audience of listeners, fans of football teams), which are called “quasi-groups” (lat. quasi - supposedly imaginary), or “social aggregations." They are characterized by fragility of relationships between people in contact.
Social communities are divided into stable (for example, a nation) and short-term (for example, passengers on a bus).
Types of social communities
Class communities and strata.
Historical forms of community.
Socio-demographic communities.
Corporate communities.
Ethnic and territorial communities.
Communities formed depending on the interests of individuals.
In general, the entire set of real social communities can be divided into two large subclasses: mass and group (social groups).
Social groups are stable collections of people who have excellent, only inherent characteristics(social status, interests, value orientations).
The emergence of social groups, firstly, is associated with the social division of labor and specialization of activity, and secondly, it is caused by the historically established diversity of living conditions, culture, social norms and values.
Collectively, social groups form the social structure of society.
The social structure of society is the internal structure of a society or social group, ordered by certain norms for the interaction of parts. Social structure organizes society into a single whole.
As already noted, in addition to the concept of “group”, in sociology there is the concept of “quasi-group”.
A quasi-group is an unstable informal collection of people, united, as a rule, by one or very few types of interaction, having an uncertain structure and system of values and norms.
There are the following types of quasigroups:
- audience - an association of people led by a communicator (for example, a concert or radio audience). Here there is such a type of social connections as the transmission and reception of information directly or with the help of technical means;
- fan group - an association of people based on fanatical commitment to a sports team, rock band or religious cult;
- a crowd is a temporary gathering of people united by some interest or idea.
Basic properties of quasigroups:
+ Anonymity
+ Suggestibility
+ Social contagion
+ Unconsciousness
In modern conditions, when a huge amount of work is required to coordinate activities and resources, the importance of organizations increases.
An organization is a large association of people acting through non-personal connections, created to achieve specific goals (hospitals, educational establishments, firms, financial companies, banks, government agencies, etc.). Organizations are, for the most part, “designed”—established with specific goals, located in buildings or physical spaces specifically designed to help achieve those goals.
Groups and organizations directly influence human behavior. This influence can be both positive and negative.
The impact of a small group on a person
Positive
The relationships that develop in a group teach a person to fulfill existing social norms, form value orientations assimilated by the individual
In a group, a person improves his communication skills
From group members a person receives information that allows him to correctly perceive and evaluate himself. The group gives a person self-confidence, supplies him with a system of positive emotions necessary for his development
Negative
The goals of the group are achieved by infringing on the interests of its individual members to the detriment of the interests of the whole society, i.e. group egoism takes place
The influence that the group usually has on gifted creative individuals: their original ideas were rejected by the majority because they were incomprehensible, and extraordinary individuals themselves were restrained, suppressed in their development, persecuted
Sometimes a person enters into an internal conflict and behaves conformally (lat. conformis - similar), i.e., consciously disagreeing with the people around him, nevertheless agrees with them, based on some considerations
Thus, despite the fact that real society is made up of people and individuals, the true subjects of social relations are social groups.
Youth is a socio-demographic group, identified on the basis of a combination of age characteristics (approximately from 16 to 25 years), characteristics of social status and certain socio-psychological qualities.
Youth is a period of choosing a profession and one’s place in life, developing a worldview and life values, choosing a life partner, starting a family, achieving economic independence and socially responsible behavior.
Youth is a specific phase, stage of the human life cycle and is biologically universal.
Features of the social status of young people
- Transitional position.
- High level of mobility.
- Mastering new social roles (employee, student, citizen, family man) associated with changes in status.
- Active search for your place in life.
- Favorable prospects in professional and career terms.
Youth is the most active, mobile and dynamic part of the population, free from stereotypes and prejudices of previous years and possessing the following socio-psychological qualities: mental instability; internal inconsistency; low level of tolerance (from Latin tolerantia - patience); the desire to stand out, to be different from the rest; the existence of a specific youth subculture.
It is typical for young people to form informal groups, which are characterized by the following features:
- emergence on the basis of spontaneous communication in specific conditions of a social situation;
- self-organization and independence from official structures;
- obligatory for participants and different from the typical, accepted in society, behavior patterns that are aimed at realizing life needs that are unsatisfied in ordinary forms (they are aimed at self-affirmation, giving social status, gaining security and prestigious self-esteem);
- relative stability, a certain hierarchy among group members;
- expression of different value orientations or even worldviews, behavioral stereotypes that are uncharacteristic of society as a whole;
- attributes that emphasize belonging to a given community.
Depending on the characteristics of youth amateur activities, youth groups and movements can be classified.
Aggressive initiative
It is based on the most primitive ideas about the hierarchy of values, based on the cult of persons. Primitivism, visibility of self-affirmation. Popular among teenagers and young people with a minimum level of intellectual and cultural development.
Shocking (French epater - to amaze, surprise) amateur performance
It is based on a challenge to norms, canons, rules, opinions both in everyday, material forms of life - clothing, hairstyle, and in spiritual ones - art, science. “Challenging” aggression on yourself from others in order to be “noticed” (punk style, etc.)
Alternative amateur performance
Based on the development of alternative, systemically contradictory models of behavior that become an end in themselves (hippies, Hare Krishnas, etc.)
Social activities
Aimed at solving specific social problems(environmental movements, movements for the revival and preservation of cultural and historical heritage, etc.)
Political amateur activities
Aimed at changing the political system and political situation in accordance with the ideas of a specific group
The acceleration of the pace of development of society determines the increasing role of youth in public life. By getting involved in social relations, young people modify them and, under the influence of transformed conditions, improve themselves.
Along with classes, estates and other groups, the social structure of society is also made up of historically established communities, called ethnic ones. Ethnic groups are large groups of people who have a common culture, language, and awareness of the indissolubility of historical destiny. Ethnic communities include tribes, nationalities and nations. A nation is the historically highest form of ethnosocial community of people, characterized by the unity of territory, economic life, historical path, language, culture, ethnicity, and self-awareness. The unity of the territory should be understood as the compactness of the nation. Representatives of a nation speak and write in one language, understandable (despite dialects) to all members of the nation. Each nation has its own folklore, customs, traditions, mentality (special stereotypes of thinking), national way of life, etc., i.e. its own culture. The unity of the nation is also facilitated by the common historical path traversed by each nation. National self-awareness is understood as a reflection of the consciousness of a nation in the individual consciousness of its members, expressing the latter’s assimilation of ideas about the place and role of their people in the world, about their historical experience. A person is aware of his national identity, his belonging to a particular nation, and understands national interests. A special role among the characteristics of a nation is played by the community of economic life. Based on the development of commodity-money relations, natural isolation and isolation is destroyed, a single national market is formed, and economic ties between individual parts of the nation are strengthened. This creates a solid basis for its unity. An important factor in the education and development of a nation is the state. Nations are formed during the genesis of commodity-money relations, although a number of scientists trace the history of nations from ancient times. They are preceded by tribe and nationality. Consanguinity plays the main role in the formation of a tribe, and a nationality is characterized by a common territory. In the modern world there are from 2,500 to 5,000 ethnic groups, but only a few hundred of them are nations. As part of the modern Russian Federation more than 100 ethnic groups, including about 30 nations. A nation is an ethnic group or a set of ethnic groups living as a single state, rising to a state way of life. And an ethnos is a pre-state or already intra-state community of people. Therefore, a state can be either mono-ethnic (for example, Japan) or multi-ethnic (for example, Russia), and an ethnic group, in turn, can be either divided between several states (such as the Kurds) or consolidated in one state ( like, for example, the Yakuts). At the same time, ethnic groups can be both state-forming (having created and preserved the tradition of their statehood) and “nationalized” (having adopted statehood from other peoples with whom they live in a common state). But in any case, one thing should be highlighted and emphasized: an ethnos (nationality, “nationality”) is either still a pre-state (a potential subject of state life), or already a subject of state life - its own, original, or common to other ethnic groups. And it is precisely its attitude to state life that first of all distinguishes an ethnos from a nation. In the modern world, two interrelated trends are visible. One is manifested in the economic, cultural and even political rapprochement of nations, the destruction of national barriers, ultimately leading to integration within supranational structures (for example, the European Community). On the other hand, the desire of a number of peoples to gain national independence and to resist the economic, political and cultural expansion of superpowers persists and even grows. In almost all states, the positions of nationalist parties and movements are strong, and even the ideas of national exclusivity have many supporters. True, societies of mass production and mass consumption, by definition, cannot be individual. The scientific and technological revolution also requires deepening cooperation between different states. But even in developed countries (Canada, Spain, Great Britain) the national issue remains acute. The national question is understood as the question of the liberation of oppressed peoples, their self-determination and overcoming ethnic inequality. The roots of the national question are in the uneven socio-economic and political development of different peoples. More developed and powerful states conquered weak and backward ones, establishing a system of national oppression in the conquered countries, sometimes expressed in forced ethnic assimilation and even genocide. After the division of Europe, it was the turn of the Third World. Traditional societies of Asia, Africa, and America fell under the onslaught of European industrial civilization and turned into colonial countries. At the same time, the struggle of dependent peoples against national oppression began. By the end of the 20th century. it actually ended with the complete collapse of the colonial system and the formation of many independent states on the political map of the world. But the discrepancy between ethnic and territorial boundaries, the deterioration of the economic situation, social contradictions, nationalism and chauvinism, elevated to the rank of official policy, persistent national and religious differences (sometimes quite sharp), the burden of past national grievances are the fertile ground for numerous interethnic conflicts. The degree of their severity largely depends on the nature of the demands of the national minority. Thus, the Sikhs in India, the Tamils in Sri Lanka, the Basques in Spain advocate the creation of their own independent states, so the interethnic conflict here has resulted in many years of bloody armed confrontation. This is also the nature of the Ulster conflict: the Catholic Irish are demanding the reunification of Northern Ireland with the main core of the nation. More moderate demands, such as cultural autonomy or the establishment of true equality (the Korean minority in Japan), also explain more moderate forms of national confrontation. The collapse of the USSR and the formation of sovereign Russia did not alleviate the urgency of the national issue in the country. All former autonomous republics of the RSFSR declared their sovereignty and renounced the status of autonomies. In a number of republics (Tatarstan, Bashkortostan, Yakutia), nationalist forces headed for separation from Russia. The North Ossetian-Ingush conflict led to a bloody massacre. The Ingush tried to regain the territories taken from them during the Great Patriotic War. Patriotic War and have not yet been returned. To separate the warring parties, the president and government had to send federal armed forces to the confrontation zone. But the most serious manifestation of the aggravation of interethnic relations on Russian territory was and remains the Chechen crisis. Back in 1991, the Republic of Ichkeria (Chechnya) announced its secession from the Russian Federation. The federal authorities did not recognize the self-proclaimed state. but for a long time they did not take any measures to normalize the situation. In December 1994, troops were introduced into Chechnya Russian troops with the aim of “restoring constitutional order.” Separatist detachments met the federal armed forces with fierce resistance. The conflict became protracted and bloody. Chechen militants committed a number of terrorist attacks against civilians in several Russian regions. The government proved unable to resolve the crisis militarily, causing a wave of protest both in Russia and abroad. The war in Chechnya revealed the weak combat readiness of the Russian army and the unpreparedness of the command of federal forces to lead military operations in mountainous regions. The failure of such a strategy made a peaceful settlement of the Chechen crisis necessary. In August 1996, the leadership of the Russian Federation and the separatists agreed to cease hostilities and withdraw federal troops from the rebellious republic. The decision on the political status of Chechnya was postponed until 2000. However, after an unsuccessful attempt by Chechen militants in August 1999 to capture a number of regions of Dagestan, the second Chechen campaign began. During the autumn of 1999 - spring of 2000, federal troops, despite sharp criticism of the actions of the Russian authorities by international human rights organizations (for example, the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe suspended the powers of the delegation of the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation), managed to establish control over most of the territory of the republic (with the exception of mountainous areas ). Now on the agenda are the tasks of a political settlement: restoration of the Chechen economy, creation of new government bodies (in accordance with the Constitution and laws of the Russian Federation), holding free and democratic elections, real integration of Chechnya into the Federation. The national issue is also quite acute in the countries of the so-called near abroad. The Russian-speaking population remaining on the territory of the former Soviet republics, and now independent states, found themselves in the position of a national minority. In the Baltic states (especially Latvia and Estonia), discriminatory laws on citizenship and the state language are adopted, directed against the non-indigenous population. For a long time Russian authorities did not take adequate measures to protect our compatriots. A big problem is posed by the numerous Russian refugees from Central Asia, Transcaucasia, and Kazakhstan, who returned to their homeland from areas of military conflicts and national intolerance. When resolving interethnic conflicts, it is necessary to observe the humanistic principles of policy in the field of national relations: 1) renunciation of violence and coercion; 2) seeking agreement based on the consensus of all participants; 3) recognition of human rights and freedoms as the most important value; 4) readiness for a peaceful resolution of controversial issues.
Interethnic (international) relations are relations between ethnic groups (peoples), covering all spheres of public life.
Levels of interethnic relations: 1) interaction of peoples in different spheres of public life; 2) interpersonal relationships of people of different ethnicities.
In the modern world, there is an economic, cultural and even political rapprochement (integration) of nations (EU - European Union).
The European Union was formed in 1993 in accordance with the Maastricht Treaty of 1992 on the basis of the European Community, which united 12 countries: Belgium, Great Britain, Germany, Greece, Denmark, Spain, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Portugal, France.
In June 2004, the European Constitution was adopted. She drew disapproval from the Vatican for refusing to mention the “Christian roots” of European civilization. In addition, Spain and Poland tried to revise the decision-making procedure in the EU (instead of the current one, taking into account “ specific gravity» economies of member countries, move to a procedure in which the number of votes from each country would be proportional to its population). However, with the coming to power of the Socialist government in Spain, this country abandoned its intentions. The new constitution was signed on October 29, 2004 in Rome. In order for it to come into force, it must be ratified by the parliaments of all member countries. In some countries, approval was supposed to be obtained through popular referendums. In 2005, referendums in France and the Netherlands rejected the Constitution. In 2009, the Constitution was finally supported (with some reservations - a ban on abortion) by Ireland and Poland.
Another path of interethnic integration was carried out in the United States (the “melting pot” strategy).
“Melting pot” is a concept according to which the United States is a kind of “melting pot” (crucible), turning representatives of various ethnic groups into simply Americans.
Thanks to the constant influx of emigrants, the population of the USA from 1871 to 1913 increased from 39.8 million to 96.5 million people.
Israel Zangwill (1908):
“America... is a huge melting pot in which all European nations are melted and transformed.”
This metaphor became famous after the play of the same name by the English playwright and writer Israel Zangwill debuted with great success in New York in 1908, which tells the story of the life of a Jewish family who, fleeing pogroms, left Russia and found refuge in America.
Ethnic mixing is the mixing of different ethnic groups and the emergence of a new ethnic group (Latin America).
Assimilation (from Latin assimilatio - fusion, assimilation, assimilation) - (in ethnography) the merging of one people with another with the loss of one of them of its language, culture, national identity. A distinction is made between natural assimilation, which occurs during contact between ethnically diverse population groups, mixed marriages, etc., and forced assimilation, characteristic of countries where nationalities have unequal rights.
During acculturation, one people assimilates the norms of another people, but retains its ethnic identity.
Acculturation (Latin accumulare - accumulate + cultura - cultivation) is the mutual assimilation and adaptation of different cultures of peoples and individual phenomena of these cultures, in most cases with the dominance of the culture of a people who are socially more highly developed.
On the other hand, the desire of peoples to gain national independence (differentiation) and to resist the expansion of superpowers is growing.
Multiculturalism is a policy aimed at developing and preserving cultural differences in a single country and in the world as a whole, and the theory or ideology that justifies such a policy.
Multiculturalism is opposed to the concept of a “melting pot”, where all cultures are supposed to merge into one.
Nationalism is the ideology, politics, psychology and social practice of isolation and opposition of one nation to others, propaganda of the national exclusivity of a separate nation.
Types of nationalism: 1) ethnic. 2) sovereign-state, 3) household.
Chauvinism - on behalf of N. Chauvin, a soldier, an admirer of Napoleon's aggressive policy - is an extreme, aggressive form of nationalism.
Discrimination (from the Latin discriminatio - distinction) - derogation (actually or legally) of the rights of any group of citizens based on their nationality, race, gender, religion, etc. In the field international relations– granting citizens and organizations of a state less rights and privileges than citizens and organizations of other states.
Segregation (from Late Latin segregatio - separation) is the policy of forced separation of any group of the population on racial or ethnic grounds, one of the forms of racial discrimination.
Apartheid (apartheid) (in Afrikaans apartheid - separate living) is an extreme form of racial discrimination. It means the deprivation of certain groups of the population, depending on their race, of political, socio-economic and civil rights, up to and including territorial isolation. Modern international law considers apartheid a crime against humanity.
Genocide (from the Greek genos - clan, tribe and lat. caedo - I kill) is one of the most serious crimes against humanity, the extermination of certain groups of the population on racial, national, ethnic or religious grounds, as well as the deliberate creation of living conditions designed for complete or partial physical destruction of these groups, as well as measures to prevent births among them (biological genocide). Such crimes were committed on a massive scale by the Nazis during World War 2, especially against the Slavic and Jewish populations.
In Nazi Germany, about 6 million Jews were exterminated in death camps (Treblinka, Auschwitz). This tragedy is called the Greek word “holocaust” (annihilation through burning).
Holocaust (holocaust) (English holocaust - from the Greek holokaustos - burned whole) - the death of a significant part of the Jewish population of Europe (over 6 million people, over 60%) during the systematic persecution and extermination of it by the Nazis and their accomplices in Germany and in the territories it captured in 1933-45.
Separatism (French separatisme from Latin separatus - separate) - the desire for separation, isolation; movement for the separation of part of the state and the creation of a new state entity (Sikhs, Basques, Tamils) or for granting autonomy to part of the country.
Irredentism (from Italian irredento - unliberated) - 1) the idea of reunification with the main core of the nation (the Irish in Ulster); 2) political and social movement in Italy at the end of the 19th – beginning of the 20th centuries. for the annexation to Italy of the border lands of Austria-Hungary with an Italian population - Trieste, Trentino, etc.
Interethnic conflicts (in the narrow sense) occur between states or within a confederation, which is made up of a number of politically independent countries inhabited by different ethnic groups.
Interethnic conflicts arise within the state.
Interethnic conflict (in a broad sense) is any competition (rivalry) between groups, from confrontation over the possession of limited resources to social competition, in all cases where the opposing side is defined in terms of the ethnicity of its members.
Causes of interethnic conflicts:
1) economic reasons - the struggle of ethnic groups for the possession of property, material resources (land, subsoil);
2) social reasons - demands for civil equality, equality before the law, in education, in wages, equality in hiring, especially for prestigious positions in government;
3) cultural and linguistic reasons - requirements for preservation or revival, development of the native language, uniting the ethnic group into a single whole.
4) Huntington’s concept of the “clash of civilizations” explains modern conflicts by confessional and religious differences.
5) Historical past relationships between peoples.
6) Ethnodemographic - a rapid change in the ratio of the numbers of contacting peoples due to migration and differences in the level of natural population growth.
Types of interethnic conflicts:
1) conflicts of stereotypes (ethnic groups do not clearly understand the reasons for the contradictions, but in relation to the opponent they create a negative image of an “undesirable neighbor”, the Armenian-Azerbaijani conflict);
2) conflict of ideas: putting forward certain claims, justifying the “historical right” to statehood, to territory (Estonia, Lithuania, Tatarstan, at one time the idea of the Ural Republic);
3) conflict of actions: rallies, demonstrations, pickets, institutional decision-making, open clashes.
Resolution methods:
1) cut off the most radical elements or groups and support forces more prone to compromise; it is important to exclude any factors that could consolidate the conflicting party (the threat of using force, for example);
2) the use of a wide range of sanctions - from symbolic to military. It should be borne in mind that sanctions can work on extremist forces, strengthening and intensifying the conflict. Armed intervention is permissible only in one case: if during the conflict, which has taken the form of armed clashes, there are massive violations of human rights;
3) a break in the conflict, as a result the emotional background of the conflict changes, the intensity of passions decreases, and the consolidation of forces in society weakens;
4) dividing the global goal into a number of sequential tasks that are solved sequentially from simple to complex;
5) conflict prevention - the sum of efforts aimed at preventing events that lead to conflicts.
National policy refers to the theoretical and actual practical problems of our time. This is a complex phenomenon that covers all spheres of society. It also has relative independence as a system of measures carried out by the state aimed at taking into account and realizing national interests. National policy includes the strategic tasks of the state and ensures the realization of the interests of the entire nation. The internal policy of the state in relation to ethnic communities and interethnic relations is usually called ethnic politics, or policies towards ethnic minorities. National politics- this is also a purposeful activity to regulate ethno-political processes, which contains at its core a goal, principles, main directions, and a system of measures for their implementation. The main task State national policy is to harmonize the interests of all peoples living in the country, providing a legal and material basis for their development on the principles of voluntary, equal and mutually beneficial cooperation. Taking into account ethno-national characteristics in the life of society must be carried out within the boundaries of respect for human rights. IN different time and in different countries, national policy can change in nature from national terror (pogroms, ethnic cleansing, etc.), artificial assimilation (the policy and practice of forcibly converting persons of one socio-cultural, ethno-national, religious and other affiliation to another (corresponding) affiliation ) to the provision of full cultural and partially political autonomy to various peoples within a single state. National policy in the Russian Federation is a system of measures aimed at updating and further evolutionary development of the national life of all peoples of Russia within the framework of a federal state, as well as at creating equal relations between the peoples of the country, and the formation of democratic mechanisms for resolving national and interethnic problems. The documents defining national policy in our country are the Constitution of the Russian Federation, as well as adopted in 1996 “The Concept of National Policy of the Russian Federation.” After the collapse of the USSR began new stage in the development of our state based on the traditions of Russian statehood, the principles of federalism and civil society. For our multinational country, a well-thought-out democratic national politics, which includes the following areas: - development of federal relations that ensure a harmonious combination of the independence of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation and the integrity of the Russian state; - development of national cultures and languages of the peoples of the Russian Federation, strengthening the spiritual community of Russians; - ensuring political and legal protection of small peoples and national minorities; - achieving and maintaining stability, lasting interethnic peace and harmony in the North Caucasus; - support for compatriots living in the member states of the Commonwealth of Independent States, as well as in the Republics of Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia, promoting the development of their ties with Russia. Basic principles of national policy in Russia Equality of rights and freedoms of a person and citizen, regardless of his gender, race, nationality, language, attitude to religion, membership in social groups and public associations. Prohibition of any form of restriction of the rights of citizens on the basis of social, racial, national, linguistic or religious affiliation. Preservation of the integrity and inviolability of the territory of the Russian Federation. Equality of all subjects of the Russian Federation in relations with federal government bodies. Guaranteeing the rights of indigenous peoples in accordance with the Constitution of the Russian Federation, generally recognized principles and norms of international law and international treaties of the Russian Federation. The right of every citizen to determine and indicate his nationality without any coercion. Promoting the development of national cultures and languages of the peoples of Russia. Timely and peaceful resolution of contradictions and conflicts. Prohibition of activities aimed at undermining the security of the state, inciting social, racial, national and religious hatred, hatred or enmity. Protecting the rights and interests of citizens of the Russian Federation outside its borders, supporting compatriots living in foreign countries, in the preservation and development of their native language, culture and national traditions, in strengthening their ties with the Motherland in accordance with the norms of international law.
Social heterogeneity of society, differences in income levels, property, power, prestige, horizontal and vertical mobility naturally lead to an aggravation of social contradictions and conflicts. Conflicts are a special type of social interaction, the subjects of which are communities, organizations and individuals with actually or supposedly incompatible goals.
There are various theories regarding the causes and essence of conflicts that arise in society.
The founder of the conflictological tradition in sociology is considered to be the creator of the organic school, Herbert Spencer. Spencer believed that conflicts in society are a manifestation of the process of natural selection and the universal struggle for survival. Competition and inequality lead to the selection of the strongest, dooming the weaker to death. Spencer considered it possible to avoid the revolutionary path of conflict resolution and gave preference to the evolutionary development of humanity.
In contrast to Spencer, sociologists of Marxist orientation were of the opinion that conflict is just a temporary condition that periodically arises in society, and that this condition can be overcome as a result of a revolutionary change in the type of social system. They argued that different socio-economic formations correspond to different conflicting types of class structure of society; There is a struggle between the exploiting and exploited classes for the redistribution of ownership of the means of production. This class struggle, which takes place in a capitalist society between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat, inevitably leads to the dictatorship of the proletariat, which represents the transition to a classless (i.e., socially conflict-free) society.
The German sociologist Georg Simmel paid much attention to the theory of social conflict in his research. He proved the thesis that conflicts in society are inevitable, since they are predetermined by: 1) the biological nature of man; 2) the social structure of society, which is characterized by processes of association (unification) and dissociation (separation), domination and subordination. Simmel believed that frequent and not too long conflicts are even useful, since they help various social groups and individual members of society get rid of hostility towards each other.
Modern Western sociologists explain the nature of social conflicts by socio-psychological factors. They believe that the inherent inequality of society gives rise to stable psychological dissatisfaction among its members. This sensory-emotional anxiety and irritability periodically develops into conflict clashes between subjects of social relations.
The conflicting behavior of the parties itself consists of oppositely directed actions of opponents. All of them can be divided into main and auxiliary. Sociologists include those that are directly aimed at the subject of conflict as the main ones. Auxiliary actions ensure the implementation of the main ones. Also, all conflict actions are divided into offensive and defensive. Offensive means attacking the enemy, seizing his property, etc. Defensive means keeping a disputed object behind oneself or protecting it from destruction. Another possible option is retreat, surrender of positions, refusal to protect one’s interests.
If neither side tries to make concessions and avoid the conflict, then the latter moves into an acute stage. It can end immediately after the exchange of conflicting actions, but it can last quite a long time, changing its form (war, truce, war again, etc.) and growing. The growth of a conflict is called escalation. The escalation of a conflict is usually accompanied by an increase in the number of participants.
Ending a conflict does not always mean resolving it. Conflict resolution is the decision of its participants to end the confrontation. The conflict may end with the parties reconciling, one of them winning, gradually fading, or escalating into another conflict.
Sociologists consider reaching consensus to be the most optimal solution to conflict. Consensus is the agreement of a significant majority of representatives of a certain community regarding important aspects of its functioning, expressed in assessments and actions. Consensus does not mean unanimity, since it is almost impossible to achieve a complete coincidence of the positions of the parties, and it is not necessary. The main thing is that neither side expresses direct objections; Also, when resolving a conflict, a neutral position of the parties, abstention from voting, etc. are allowed.
Depending on the basis on which the typology is carried out, sociologists distinguish the following types of conflicts:
a) by duration: long-term, short-term, one-time, protracted and recurring;
b) by source of occurrence: objective, subjective and false;
c) in form: internal and external;
d) by the nature of development: intentional and spontaneous;
e) by volume: global, local, regional, group and personal;
f) by means used: violent and non-violent;
g) by influence on the course of development of society: progressive and regressive;
h) by spheres of public life: economic (or production), political, ethnic, family and everyday life.
i) by participants: Intrapersonal conflict manifests itself within the individual and is often by nature a conflict of goals or views. Its intensity increases with the number of solution options, with achieving a balance between the positive and negative outcome of the conflict and the perception of the importance of its source.
Interpersonal conflict involves two or more individuals if they perceive themselves to be in opposition to each other regarding the goals, dispositions, values, or behavior of each of them. This is the most common type of conflict.
Intragroup conflict is typically a clash between parts or members of a group that affects group dynamics and the performance of the entire group. It can arise as a result of a change in the balance of power in a group: a change in leadership, the emergence of an informal leader, the development of groupism, etc.
Intergroup conflict is an opposition or clash between two or more groups in an organization. May have a professional-production or emotional basis. It is intense in nature. The development of intergroup conflict leads to intra-organizational conflict.
Intra-organizational conflict arises most often on the basis of the design of individual works, the formation of the organization as a whole, and also as a result of the formal distribution of power. It can be vertical (conflict between levels of the organization), horizontal (between parts of the organization of equal status), linear-functional (between line management and specialists) and role-based.
(conflict with the external environment)
In the prevention and timely resolution of social conflicts big role social policy pursued by the state plays a role. Its essence is the regulation of the socio-economic conditions of society and concern for the well-being of all its citizens.
The sociology of conflict as a special part of sociological science arose relatively recently, but quickly found itself in demand by modern society. Today, conflictologists participate in negotiation processes in “hot spots” and help resolve group and interpersonal conflicts. The relevance and importance of their work is constantly increasing due to the growth of social tension and social polarization of Russian society.
In the course of their lives, people constantly interact with each other. The diverse forms of interaction between individuals, as well as the connections that arise between different social groups (or within them), are usually called social relations. A significant part of social relations is characterized by conflicting interests of their participants. The result of such contradictions is social conflicts that arise between members of society. One of the ways to harmonize the interests of people and smooth out conflicts that arise between them and their associations is normative regulation, that is, regulation of the behavior of individuals using certain norms.
The word "norm" comes from Lat. norma, which means “rule, pattern, standard.” The norm indicates the boundaries within which this or that object retains its essence and remains itself. Norms can be different - natural, technical, social. The actions and actions of people and social groups who are subjects of social relations regulate social norms.
Social norms mean general rules and patterns of behavior of people in society, determined by social relations and resulting from the conscious activity of people. Social norms develop historically and naturally. In the process of their formation, refracted through social consciousness, they are then consolidated and reproduced in the relationships and acts necessary for society. To one degree or another, social norms are binding on those to whom they are addressed, and have a certain procedural form of implementation and mechanisms for their implementation.
There are various classifications of social norms. The most important thing is the division of social norms depending on the characteristics of their emergence and implementation. By this basis There are five types of social norms: moral norms, customary norms, corporate standards, religious norms and legal norms.
Moral norms are rules of behavior that are derived from people’s ideas about good and evil, justice and injustice, good and bad. The implementation of these norms is ensured by public opinion and the inner conviction of people.
Customary norms are rules of behavior that have become habitual as a result of their repeated repetition. The implementation of customary norms is ensured by the force of habit. Customs with moral content are called mores.
A variety of customs are traditions that express people’s desire to preserve certain ideas, values, and useful forms of behavior. Another type of customs are rituals that regulate the behavior of people in the everyday, family and religious spheres.
Corporate norms are the rules of behavior established by public organizations. Their implementation is ensured by the internal conviction of the members of these organizations, as well as by the public associations themselves.
Religious norms refer to the rules of conduct contained in various holy books or established by the church. The implementation of this type of social norms is ensured by the internal beliefs of people and the activities of the church.
Legal norms are rules of conduct established or sanctioned by the state, and sometimes directly by the people, the implementation of which is ensured by the authority and coercive power of the state.
Different types of social norms did not appear simultaneously, but one after another, as needed.
With the development of society they became more and more complex.
Scientists suggest that the first type of social norms that arose in primitive society were rituals. A ritual is a rule of behavior in which the most important thing is the strictly predetermined form of its execution. The content of the ritual itself is not so important - it is its form that matters most. Rituals accompanied many events in the life of primitive people. We know about the existence of rituals for seeing off fellow tribesmen on a hunt, taking office as a leader, presenting gifts to leaders, etc. Somewhat later, rituals began to be distinguished in ritual actions. Rituals were rules of conduct that consisted of performing certain symbolic actions. Unlike rituals, they pursued certain ideological (educational) goals and had a deeper impact on the human psyche.
The next social norms to appear, which were an indicator of a new, higher stage of human development, were customs. Customs regulated almost all aspects of the life of primitive society.
Another type of social norms that arose in the primitive era were religious norms. Primitive man, aware of his weakness before the forces of nature, attributed divine power to the latter. Initially, the object of religious worship was a really existing object - a fetish. Then man began to worship some animal or plant - a totem, seeing in the latter his ancestor and protector. Then totemism was replaced by animism (from the Latin “anima” - soul), i.e., belief in spirits, soul or the universal spirituality of nature. Many scientists believe that it was animism that became the basis for the emergence of modern religions: over time, among supernatural beings, people identified several special ones - gods. This is how the first polytheistic (pagan) and then monotheistic religions appeared.
In parallel with the emergence of norms of customs and religion in primitive society, moral norms were also formed. It is impossible to determine the time of their occurrence. We can only say that morality appears along with human society and is one of the most important social regulators.
During the period of the emergence of the state, the first rules of law appeared.
Finally, the last to emerge are corporate norms.
All social norms have common features. They represent rules of conduct of a general nature, i.e., they are designed for repeated use, and operate continuously over time in relation to a personally indefinite circle of persons. In addition, social norms are characterized by such features as proceduralism and authorization. The procedural nature of social norms means the presence of a detailed regulated order (procedure) for their implementation. Authorization reflects the fact that each type of social norms has a specific mechanism for implementing their requirements.
Social norms define the boundaries of acceptable behavior of people in relation to the specific conditions of their life. As already mentioned above, compliance with these norms is usually ensured by the internal beliefs of people or by applying social rewards and social punishments to them in the form of so-called social sanctions.
Social sanction is usually understood as the reaction of society or a social group to the behavior of an individual in a socially significant situation. In terms of their content, sanctions can be positive (incentive) and negative (punitive). There are also formal sanctions (coming from official organizations) and informal sanctions (coming from unofficial organizations). Social sanctions play a key role in the system of social control, rewarding members of society for fulfilling social norms or punishing for deviation from the latter, that is, for deviance.
Deviant behavior is behavior that does not meet the requirements of social norms.
The opposite of deviant behavior is conformist behavior (from the Latin conformis - similar, similar). Conformist is social behavior that corresponds to accepted norms and values in society. Ultimately, the main task of regulatory regulation and social control is the reproduction of a conformist type of behavior in society.
The efforts of society aimed at preventing deviant behavior, punishing and correcting deviants are defined by the concept of “social control”.
Social control is a mechanism for regulating relations between an individual and society in order to strengthen order and stability in society.
In the broad sense of the word, social control can be defined as the totality of all types of control that exist in society, moral, state control, etc., in the narrow sense, social control is the control of public opinion, publicity of results and assessments of people’s activities and behavior.
Social control includes two main elements: social norms and sanctions.
Sanctions are any reaction from others to the behavior of a person or group.
There is the following classification of sanctions.
Types of sanctions
Formal:
- negative - punishment for breaking the law or violating administrative order: fines, imprisonment, etc.
- positive - encouragement of a person’s activity or behavior by official organizations: awards, certificates of professional, academic success, etc.
Informal:
- negative - condemnation of a person for an action by society: offensive tone, scolding or reprimand, demonstrative ignoring of a person, etc.
- positive - gratitude and approval of unofficial persons - friends, acquaintances, colleagues: praise, approving smile, etc., etc.
Sociologists distinguish two main forms of social control.
Social control
Internal (self-control)
A form of social control in which the individual independently regulates his behavior, coordinating it with generally accepted norms
External
A set of institutions and mechanisms that guarantee compliance with generally accepted norms of behavior and laws
Informal (intra-group) - based on approval or condemnation from a group of relatives, friends, colleagues, acquaintances, as well as from public opinion, which is expressed through traditions and customs or through the media
Formal (institutional) - based on the support of existing social institutions (army, court, education, etc.)
In the process of socialization, norms are internalized so firmly that people, violating them, experience a feeling of awkwardness or guilt, pangs of conscience. Conscience is a manifestation of internal control.
Generally accepted norms, being rational prescriptions, remain in the sphere of consciousness, below which lies the sphere of the subconscious, or unconscious, consisting of spontaneous impulses. Self-control means restraining the natural elements; it is based on volitional effort.
In traditional society, social control was based on unwritten rules; in modern society, it is based on written norms: instructions, decrees, regulations, laws. Social control gained institutional support. Formal control is exercised by such institutions of modern society as the court, education, army, production, media, political parties, and government. The school controls thanks to exam grades, the government - thanks to the system of taxation and social assistance to the population, the state - thanks to the police, the secret service, state channels of radio, television, and the press.
In the Russian Federation, special bodies have been created to exercise social control. These include the Prosecutor's Office of the Russian Federation, the Accounts Chamber of the Russian Federation, the Federal Security Service, various financial control bodies, etc. Deputies of various levels are also vested with control functions. In addition to state control bodies, various public organizations are playing an increasingly important role in Russia, for example, in the field of consumer rights protection, in monitoring labor relations, environment etc.
Detailed (minor) control, in which the manager intervenes in every action, corrects, pulls back, etc., is called supervision. Supervision is carried out not only at the micro, but also at the macro level of society. The state becomes its subject, and it turns into a specialized public institution.
The more self-control the members of a society develop, the less that society has to resort to external control. And vice versa, the less self-control is developed in people, the more often institutions of social control come into play, in particular the army, the court, and the state. The weaker the self-control, the stricter the external control should be. However, strict external control and petty supervision of citizens inhibit the development of self-awareness and expression of will, and muffle internal volitional efforts.
Methods of social control
Insulation
Establishing impenetrable barriers between the deviant and the rest of society without any attempts to correct or re-educate him
Separation
Limiting the deviant’s contacts with other people, but not completely isolating him from society; this approach allows for the correction of deviants and their return to society when they are ready to once again fulfill generally accepted norms
Rehabilitation
The process by which deviants can prepare to return to normal life and correctly fulfill their social roles in society
In the history of social thought, the problem of freedom has always been associated with the search for different meanings. Most often it came down to the question of whether a person has free will or all his actions are determined by external necessity (predestination, God's providence, fate, fate, etc.).
If everything is clearly necessary, if there are practically no accidents or new opportunities, then a person turns into an automaton, a robot, acting according to a given program.
Freedom is the ability to do as you want. Complete arbitrariness in relation to other people, the inability to establish any stable social connections
The core of freedom is choice, which is always associated with the intellectual and emotional-volitional tension of a person (the burden of choice). Society, through its norms and restrictions, determines the range of choices. This range also depends on the conditions for the realization of freedom, the existing forms social activities, the level of development of society and a person’s place in the social system.
Freedom is a specific way of being for a person, associated with his ability to choose a decision and perform an action in accordance with his goals, interests, ideals and assessments, based on awareness of the objective properties and relationships of things, the laws of the surrounding world.
Freedom exists where there is choice. But only freedom of choice gives rise to individual responsibility for decision and the actions that result from it. Freedom and responsibility are two sides of conscious human activity. Freedom creates responsibility, responsibility guides freedom.
Responsibility is a socio-philosophical and sociological concept that characterizes an objective, historically specific type of relationship between an individual, a team, and society from the point of view of the conscious implementation of mutual requirements placed on them.
Responsibility, accepted by a person as the basis of his personal moral position, acts as the foundation of the internal motivation of his behavior and actions. The regulator of such behavior is conscience.
The following types of responsibility are distinguished:
- historical, political, moral, legal, etc.;
- individual (personal), group, collective.
Social responsibility is expressed in a person's tendency to behave in accordance with the interests of other people.
As human freedom develops, responsibility increases. But its focus is gradually shifting from the collective (collective responsibility) to the person himself (individual, personal responsibility).
Only a free and responsible person can fully realize himself in social behavior and thereby reveal his potential to the maximum extent.
Social norms, which people follow in their actions, give the social world regularity and predictability. But not all individuals’ actions always correspond to social expectations. People quite often deviate from the rules that they are required to follow.
Deviant (from Late Latin deviatio - deviation) (deviant) behavior is social behavior that does not correspond to an existing norm or set of norms accepted by a significant part of people in a group or community.
The main forms of deviant behavior are: drunkenness; addiction; crime; prostitution; suicide; homosexuality.
Some sociologists make a distinction between deviant and delinquent (Latin delinquens - committing an offense) (literally - criminal) behavior. The latter includes violations of norms that fall under the category of illegal action. It is emphasized that deviant behavior is relative, because it belongs to moral standards of this group, and delinquent is absolute, since it violates the absolute norm expressed in the legal laws of society.
There are various explanations for the causes of deviant behavior.
Biological
People are biologically predisposed to a certain type of behavior. Moreover, a person’s biological predisposition to crime is reflected in his appearance
Psychological
Deviant behavior is a consequence of psychological qualities, character traits, internal life attitudes, and personality orientation, which are partly innate in nature and partly formed by upbringing and environment. At the same time, the act itself, a violation of the law, can become the result of the psychological state of the deviant
Sociological
Deviant behavior is caused by the anomic state of society (anomie), i.e. collapse of the existing system social values and norms regulating people's life. According to the Theory of Stigmatization (from the gr. stigma - corner, spot)
Deviation is determined not by behavior or a specific act, but by a group assessment, the application by other people of sanctions against those whom they consider “violators” of established norms.
There are primary and secondary deviations. With primary deviation, the individual from time to time violates some social norms. However, those around him do not attach much importance to this, and he himself does not consider himself a deviant. Secondary deviation is characterized by the fact that a person is labeled as a “deviant” and begins to treat him differently from ordinary people.
Deviant behavior can be both collective and individual in nature. Moreover, individual deviation in some cases transforms into collective deviation. The spread of the latter is usually associated with the influence of the criminal subculture, the bearers of which are the declassed layers of society. Categories of the population that are more predisposed than others to commit deviant acts are called risk groups. Such groups, in particular, include certain segments of youth.
According to experts, the existence of deviant behavior among some people in modern society is inevitable. Therefore, the task of “complete eradication” of deviations is not set today. After all, deviations are not necessarily directed for the worse. Sometimes deviant behavior is positive (for example, national heroes, outstanding athletes, political leaders, industrial leaders).
At the same time, measures of social influence on behavioral deviations are necessary. And here two main directions are outlined: if strict prohibitive measures are needed in relation to criminal (delinquent) behavior, then such deviations as alcoholism, drug addiction, suicide, mental disorders, etc. require organization different types social assistance - opening crisis centers, houses for the homeless, helplines, etc.
Status is a certain position in the social structure of a group or society, connected to other positions through a system of rights and responsibilities. Social status is called general position an individual or social group in society associated with a certain set of rights and obligations. Social statuses can be prescribed and acquired (achieved). The first category includes nationality, place of birth, social origin, etc., the second - profession, education, etc. In any society there is a certain hierarchy of statuses, which represents the basis of its stratification. Certain statuses are prestigious, others are the opposite. Prestige is society’s assessment of the social significance of a particular status, enshrined in culture and public opinion. This hierarchy is formed under the influence of two factors: a) the real usefulness of the social functions that a person performs; b) a value system characteristic of a given society. If the prestige of any statuses is unreasonably overestimated or, conversely, underestimated, it is usually said that there is a loss of status balance. A society in which there is a similar tendency to lose this balance is unable to ensure its normal functioning. Authority must be distinguished from prestige. Authority is the degree to which society recognizes the dignity of an individual, a particular person. The social status of an individual primarily influences his behavior. Knowing the social status of a person, you can easily determine most of the qualities that he possesses, as well as predict the actions that he will carry out. Such expected behavior of a person, associated with the status that he has, is usually called a social role.
A social role actually represents a certain pattern of behavior recognized as appropriate for people of a given status in a given society.
In fact, the role provides a model showing exactly how an individual should act in a given situation. Roles vary in degree of formalization: some are very clearly defined, for example in military organizations, others are very vague. A social role can be assigned to a person either formally (for example, in a legislative act), or it can also be of an informal nature. Any individual is a reflection of the totality of social relations of his era. Therefore, each person has not one but a whole set of social roles that he plays in society. Their combination is called the role system. Such a variety of social roles can cause internal conflict of the individual (if some of the social roles contradict each other). Scientists offer various classifications of social roles. Among the latter, as a rule, there are the so-called main (basic) social roles. These include: a) the role of the worker; b) the role of the owner; c) the role of the consumer; d) the role of a citizen; d) the role of a family member. However, despite the fact that the behavior of an individual is largely determined by the status that he occupies and the roles that he plays in society, he (the individual) nevertheless retains his autonomy and has a certain freedom of choice. And although in modern society there is a tendency towards unification and standardization of personality, its complete leveling, fortunately, does not occur.
An individual has the opportunity to choose from a variety of social statuses and roles offered to him by society, those that allow him to better realize his plans and use his abilities as effectively as possible. On a person’s acceptance of this or that social role influenced by both social conditions and his biological and personal characteristics (health status, gender, age, temperament, etc.). Any role prescription outlines only general scheme human behavior, offering to make a choice of ways to fulfill it by the individual himself. In the process of achieving a certain status and fulfilling the corresponding social role, a so-called role conflict may arise.
Role conflict is a situation in which a person is faced with the need to satisfy the demands of two or more incompatible roles.
Socialization (from Latin socialis - social) is the process of assimilation and further development by an individual of cultural norms and social experience necessary for successful functioning in society. The process of socialization continues throughout life, as a person masters many social roles during this time. Stages of socialization
Stage | Its contents |
Elementary | Socialization of the child, mainly in the family |
Average | Schooling |
Final | Socialization of an adult learning new roles: spouse, parent, grandfather, etc. |
Socialization factors .
A huge number of different conditions affecting a person are usually called factors. In fact, not all of them have been identified, and of the known ones, not all have been studied. Quite a lot is known about some factors, little about others, and very little about others. More or less studied conditions or factors of socialization can be conditionally combined into four groups.
1) Megafactors (mega - very large, universal) - space, planet, world, which to one degree or another through other groups of factors influence the socialization of all inhabitants of the Earth.
2) Macro factors (macro - large) - a country, ethnic group, society, state that influence the socialization of everyone living in certain countries.
3) Mesofactors (meso - average, intermediate) - conditions for the socialization of large groups of people, distinguished: by the area and type of settlement in which they live (region, village, town, town); by belonging to the audience of certain mass communication networks (radio, television, etc.); according to belonging to certain subcultures.
4) Microfactors . These include factors that directly influence specific people who interact with them - family and home, neighborhood, peer groups, educational organizations, various public state, religious, private organizations, microsociety.
Agents of Socialization (people and institutions responsible for teaching cultural norms and social roles): family, peer group, school and other educational institutions, community organizations, media. There are as many agents of socialization as there are groups and social situations in which individuals spend any significant part of their lives.
!!! In a narrow sense, agents of socialization are specific people responsible for teaching other people cultural norms and helping them learn social roles.
Agents of primary socialization : parents, relatives, teachers (a person’s immediate environment).
Children of the Jungle (Mowgli, Feral People) ( lat . feralis - wild) - human children who lived without contact with people from an early age and experienced practically no care and love from another person, had no experience of social behavior and communication.
Children raised by animals exhibit (within the limits of human physical capabilities) behavior characteristic of their adoptive parents, for example, fear of humans.
If children had some social behavior skills before being isolated from society, the process of their rehabilitation is much easier. Those who lived in the company of animals for the first 5-6 years of life are practically unable to master human language, walk upright, or communicate meaningfully with other people, despite subsequent years spent in the company of people where they received enough care.
Agents of secondary socialization : employees of universities, enterprises, journalists, TV presenters. In this sense, the institutions of socialization are social institutions: 1) primary (family, school, peer group), 2) secondary (army, production).
Agents of secondary socialization influence in a narrow direction; they perform one or two functions. Agents of primary socialization are universal; they perform many different functions: the father plays the role of breadwinner, guardian, discipliner, educator, teacher, friend.
Functions of agents and institutions of socialization : 1) training in cultural norms and patterns of behavior; 2) control over the completeness of assimilation of these norms and patterns of behavior through encouragement or punishment.
Means, methods, mechanisms of socialization .
Socialization methods differ in the degree of focus, organization, and control methods.
Every society, every organization, every social group (small or large) develops in its history a set of positive and negative, formal and informal sanctions - methods of suggestion and persuasion, instructions and prohibitions, coercive measures and pressure, up to the use of physical violence, methods of expression recognition, distinction, awards. With the help of these measures and methods, the behavior of a person and entire groups of people is brought into line with the patterns, norms, and values accepted in a given culture.
!!! Agents + factors = socialization mechanisms.
1) Socio-psychological mechanisms .
Imprinting (imprinting) is a person’s fixation at the receptor and subconscious levels of the characteristics of vital objects affecting him.
Imitation is following an example or model. In this case, it is one of the ways of a person’s voluntary and, most often, involuntary assimilation of social experience.
Identification (identification) is the process of a person’s unconscious identification of himself with another person, group, or model. Empathy (from Greek . empatheia - empathy) is a person’s ability to simultaneously experience the emotions that arise in another person in the process of communicating with him. Reflection is an internal dialogue in which a person considers, evaluates, accepts or rejects certain values inherent in various institutions of society, family, peer society, significant persons, etc.
2) Socio-pedagogical mechanisms of socialization The traditional mechanism of socialization (spontaneous) is the assimilation by a person of norms, standards of behavior, views, stereotypes that are characteristic of his family and immediate environment (neighbors, friends, etc.).
The institutional mechanism of socialization functions in the process of human interaction with the institutions of society and various organizations, as specially created for his socialization.
The stylized mechanism of socialization operates within a certain subculture. Stages of socialization:
Version No. 1 : The first stage is characteristic of early childhood. At this stage, external conditions for regulating social behavior predominate. The second stage of socialization is characterized by the replacement of external sanctions internal control.
Version No. 2 : 1) primary socialization or adaptation stage (from birth to adolescence, when the child assimilates social experience critically, adapts, imitates those around him); 2) stage of individualization (a person has a desire to distinguish himself from others, a critical attitude towards social norms of behavior is formed); 3) the integration stage goes well if a person is accepted by the group, society. If society rejects a person, then one of the following options is possible: a) maintaining dissimilarity and the emergence of aggressive interactions with people and society; b) changing oneself (“become like everyone else”); c) external agreement, adaptation; 4) labor stage (period of maturity, work activity, when a person acquires social experience); 5) post-labor stage (old age, making an important contribution to the reproduction of social experience, to the process of transmitting it to new generations).
Version No. 3 : Erik Erikson (1902 – 1982): life cycle personality includes eight phases (and, accordingly, eight psychosocial crises), each of which has its own specific goal and can end favorably or unfavorably for future development: 1) infancy (the goal is to develop an unconscious sense of “basic trust” in the outside world, failure = > feeling of “basic mistrust”, isolation); 2) early childhood (goal - a sense of autonomy and personal value, failure => shame, uncertainty and doubt); 3) playing age (goal – sense of initiative, failure => feeling of guilt); 4) school age (goal – a sense of enterprise and efficiency, failure => a feeling of inferiority); 5) youth (the goal is a sense of individuality, failure => role and personal uncertainty); 6) youth (the goal is the need and ability for intimate psychological intimacy with another person, failure => isolation and loneliness); 7) adulthood (the goal is creativity and a sense of productivity, usefulness, failure => a feeling of stagnation, stagnation); 8) mature age or old age (the goal is a feeling of fullness of life, fulfilled duty, failure => despair and disappointment).
In what areas does socialization take place?
The expansion and deepening of socialization occurs in three main areas : 1) activity (expanding types of socialization, orientation in the system of each type of activity, i.e. highlighting the main thing in it, understanding it, etc.), 2) communication (enriching a person’s social circle, developing communication skills); 3) self-awareness (formation of an image of one’s own “I” = self-concept, comprehension of one’s social affiliation, social role, formation of self-esteem).
I am a concept - a person’s system of ideas about himself.How is socialization different from education?
Socialization is the process of a person’s assimilation of a certain system of knowledge, norms and values that allows him to function as a full member of society. Education is a process of targeted influence on a person, which is designed to help him master the socio-cultural experience of mankind. In a broad sense, education is usually viewed as the diverse influence of society on the individual. In this understanding, education is close to socialization. However, these two concepts cannot be considered synonymous. Socialization occurs in conditions of spontaneous interaction between a person and the social environment. During socialization, a person naturally assimilates social experience and role behavior models based on existing norms in society.
Education is a process of purposeful influence on a person. In a narrow, special sense, education means purposefully organized activities for the formation of certain personality qualities (education of a worldview, moral culture, aesthetic taste).
Education can be considered as a mechanism for managing the socialization process.
The family is a complex social entity. A family is a community of people based on a single family activity, connected by the bonds of marriage and thereby carrying out the reproduction of the population and the continuity of family generations, as well as the socialization of children and the maintenance of existence of family members. The family is both a social institution and a small group.
Social institution refers to a relatively stable type or form of social practice through which it is organized public life, ensures the stability of connections and relationships within social organization society.
A small group in sociology is understood as a social group that is small in composition, whose members are united by common activities and are in direct personal communication with each other, which is the basis for the emergence of both emotional relationships and special group values and norms of behavior. How social institution The family satisfies the most important need of people for reproduction, as a small group - it plays a huge role in the upbringing and development of the individual, his socialization, and is the conductor of those values and norms of behavior that are accepted in society. Depending on the nature of the marriage, the characteristics of parenthood and kinship, the following types of family structures are distinguished: 1) monogamous marriage and polygamy. A monogamous marriage is the marriage of one man to one woman. Polygamy is the marriage of one spouse with several women. There are two types of polygamy: polygyny - the marriage of one man with several women and polyandry - the marriage of one woman with several men; 2) patrilineal and matrilineal families. In patrilineal families, inheritance of the surname, property and social status is carried out through the father, and in matrilineal families - through the mother; 3) patriarchal and matriarchal families. In patriarchal families, the head is the father; in matriarchal families, the mother has the highest authority and influence; 4) homogeneous and heterogeneous families. In homogeneous families, spouses come from the same social stratum; in heterogeneous families, they come from different social groups, castes, classes; 5) small families (1-2 children), medium-sized families (3-4 children) and large families (5 or more children). The most common in modern urbanized cities are the so-called nuclear families, consisting of parents and their children, i.e., two generations. The family performs a number of functions, among which the main ones are reproductive, educational, economic and recreational (relieving stressful situations). Sociological scientists distinguish between specific and nonspecific functions of the family. Specific functions stem from the essence of the family and reflect its characteristics as a social phenomenon. These include the birth, maintenance and socialization of children. Nonspecific name those functions that the family is forced to perform in certain historical circumstances. These functions are associated with the accumulation and transfer of property, status, organization of production and consumption, etc. Another social institution is closely related to the institution of the family - the institution of marriage. As a rule, it is the married couple that forms the basis of the family. Marriage in sociology is understood as a socially and personally appropriate, stable form of sexual relations, sanctioned by society. In the legal sense, marriage is a legally formalized voluntary and free union of a woman and a man, aimed at creating a family and giving rise to mutual personal, as well as property rights and obligations of the spouses. Marriage and family relations in the Russian Federation are regulated by family law. The main source of family law is the Family Code of the Russian Federation. In accordance with the legislation on the family in the Russian Federation, only secular marriage is recognized, that is, a legally formalized marriage, concluded and registered with the civil registry office. At the same time, the Family Code of the Russian Federation recognizes the legal force of marriages committed Russian citizens according to religious rites, if any took place in the occupied territories of the USSR during the Great Patriotic War, i.e. during the period when civil registration authorities were not operating in these territories. Marriage can be concluded only if the spouses comply with a number of conditions established by law.
There are two groups of such conditions. The first group includes positive conditions, the presence of which is mandatory for marriage: a) mutual voluntary consent of those entering into marriage; b) reaching marriageable age, i.e. 18 years; If there are good reasons, at the request of the spouses, the age of marriage may be reduced to 16 years. The Family Code provides for the possibility of marriage at an earlier age. This is allowed as an exception, taking into account special circumstances, if the laws of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation establish the procedure and conditions for concluding such marriages. The second group consists of negative conditions, i.e. circumstances that prevent marriage. The following conditions are considered negative: a) the status of at least one of the persons entering into marriage in another registered marriage; b) the presence of a close relationship between the persons entering into marriage. Close relatives are recognized as: relatives in a direct ascending and descending line (parents and children, grandparents and grandchildren), as well as siblings, and this relationship can be either complete or incomplete (when a sister and brother have only a common mother or father); c) the existence of adoption relations between persons wishing to marry; d) recognition by the court of the incapacity of at least one of the spouses due to a mental disorder. To enter into a marriage, persons entering into marriage submit a joint written application to the civil registry authorities, in which they confirm their mutual voluntary consent to enter into a marriage, as well as the absence of circumstances impeding the conclusion of a marriage. The marriage is concluded after one month from the date of filing the application. However, the law provides that if there are good reasons, the monthly period can be reduced or increased (in the latter case - by no more than 1 month), and in the presence of special circumstances (pregnancy, childbirth, immediate threat to the life of one of the parties, etc. .) marriage can be concluded on the day of filing the application. The decision to shorten or increase the term of marriage is made by the civil registry office. Marriage is concluded in the personal presence of those entering into marriage. State registration of marriage is carried out by any civil registry office on the territory of the Russian Federation at the choice of the persons entering into marriage. Family law establishes a number of grounds under which a marriage can be declared invalid. These include: a) non-compliance by persons entering into marriage with the conditions established by law for its conclusion; b) concealment by the person entering into marriage of the presence of a sexually transmitted disease or HIV infection; c) entering into a fictitious marriage, i.e. i.e. a marriage into which the spouses or one of them entered into without the intention of starting a family. A marriage is declared invalid from the date of its conclusion. However, if by the time the case of declaring the marriage invalid is considered, those circumstances that, by force of law, prevented its conclusion have disappeared, then the court may recognize the marriage as valid. The grounds for terminating a marriage should be distinguished from the grounds for declaring a marriage invalid. The latter, according to the Family Code of the Russian Federation, are the death or declaration of one of the spouses as deceased, as well as divorce in the manner prescribed by law. Divorce is carried out by the civil registry office or in court. In the civil registry office, divorce is carried out in the following cases: 1) with mutual consent to divorce of spouses who do not have common minor children; 2) at the request of one of the spouses, if the other spouse is recognized by the court as missing, incompetent, or sentenced to imprisonment for a term of more than three years for committing a crime. Divorce in these cases is carried out regardless of whether the spouses have common minor children. In all cases, divorce is carried out after a month from the date of filing the application for divorce. If disputes arise between spouses during divorce in the civil registry office (for example, about the division of property), they are considered by the court. A judicial dissolution of marriage is carried out in the following cases: 1) if the spouses have common minor children, with the exception of the cases noted above; 2) in the absence of consent of one of the spouses to divorce; 3) if one of the spouses avoids dissolving the marriage in the registry office, although he does not object to such dissolution (for example, he refuses to submit the appropriate application, etc.). The law establishes a number of restrictions on the husband’s rights to file claims for divorce (in particular, he does not have the right to initiate proceedings for divorce without the wife’s consent during the wife’s pregnancy and within a year after the birth of the child). Divorce is carried out if the court determines that further life together of the spouses and preservation of the family is impossible. In this case, the court has the right to take measures to reconcile the spouses. For such reconciliation, the court sets a period of 3 months, and the trial of the case is postponed for this time. If measures to reconcile the spouses are unsuccessful and the spouses (or one of them) insist on dissolution of the marriage, then the court decides to dissolve the marriage. If there is mutual consent to dissolve the marriage of spouses who have common minor children, the court will dissolve the marriage without clarifying the reasons for the divorce. When considering a case of divorce, the court decides the issues of which of the parents the minor children will live with after the divorce, from which of the parents and in what amounts to collect child support, as well as the division of property owned jointly by the spouses. On all these issues, the spouses themselves can conclude an agreement and submit it to the court for consideration. The court dissolves a marriage after a month has passed from the date the spouses filed an application for divorce. A marriage is considered terminated: a) in the event of its dissolution in the registry office - from the date of state registration of the divorce in the civil registration book; b) in the case of divorce in court - on the day the court decision enters into legal force (however, in this case, state registration of divorce is necessary). Spouses do not have the right to enter into a new marriage until they receive a certificate of divorce from the civil registry office.
The term “social strata” appeared in the 20th century. These units of social hierarchy unite people with a certain set of traits and characteristics.
Social classes and strata
The layers are a tool of social stratification - dividing society according to different criteria. Scientists have been studying this problem since ancient times. Social strata as a concept appeared in the 20th century. Before this, other units of hierarchy were common - castes and estates.
In the 19th century, the doctrine of social classes was popular. This phenomenon was first studied by Adam Smith and David Ricardo, classics of political economy. Class theory was most fully developed and revealed by the German scientist Karl Marx. Modern social strata have adopted some features from his teachings.
Dichotomous division of society
Social strata are characterized by classification according to several defining characteristics. power, education, leisure and consumption. These indicators are signs of inequality between different members of society.
There are several models for dividing the population into strata. The simplest idea is the idea of dichotomy - the duality of society. According to this theory, society is divided into masses and elites. This specificity was especially characteristic of the most ancient civilizations. In them, the pronounced was the norm. In addition, in such societies, castes of so-called “initiates” appeared - priests, leaders or elders. Modern civilization has abandoned such social structures.
Social hierarchy
According to modern strata of society, they have certain status characteristics that unite people. Between them there is a feeling of connectedness and belonging to the same community. In this case, the layer indicators carry only the assessment “better - worse” or “more - less”.
For example, when it comes to education, people are divided into those who have completed school or university. Similar associations can be continued when talking about income or career growth individual. In other words, social strata of society have a strict vertical hierarchy. This is a kind of pyramid, at the top of which are the “best”. If, for example, we compare basketball fans and folklore fans, then their difference will not be vertical, but horizontal. Such groups do not fall under the definition of social strata.
Concept of status
The main category in the theory of social strata is status. It is he who is of key importance in the modern stratification of society. The current social strata of the population differ from the classes of the 19th century in that a person is not tied to any group for life. What does this look like in practice? For example, if a boy was born in but studied well and, thanks to his talents, was able to achieve a high career position, then he certainly moved from one layer to another.
The status implies that the person who belongs to it must meet certain requirements. They concern the ability of a member of society to consume and produce goods. For status, and therefore for the social stratum, it is important to adhere to the lifestyle established as a norm.
Welfare and work
The characteristics by which representatives of social classes are divided can be divided into several groups. For example, they are related to a person's economic status. This group includes the presence private property, sizes and types of income. In general, these signs can be described as the level of material well-being. According to this criterion, poor, middle-income and rich strata are distinguished. You can also give examples of low- and high-paid workers living in public housing, property owners, etc.
The concept of social stratum concerns the phenomenon of division of labor. This hierarchy refers to a person's professional skills and training. The work of each individual finds a different application, and it is in this difference that the next social layer is reflected. For example, we can distinguish workers employed in agriculture, industry, service sector, etc.
Power and influence
Power is no less important in the social hierarchy. They are determined by a person’s ability to influence others. The source of such abilities can be a high position held or the possession of socially important knowledge. In this hierarchy, ordinary workers can be distinguished into municipal enterprise, managers in small businesses or, for example, government leaders.
Signs of influence, authority and prestige are included in a separate group. In this case, the assessments of others play a big role. This indicator cannot be objective, so it is very difficult to measure and define it within any specific framework. According to this characteristic, we can distinguish famous cultural figures, representatives of the state elite, etc.
Minor signs
The main features according to which the modern stratification of society is built were described above. However, besides them, there are also secondary features. They do not have a decisive meaning, but also influence the position of the individual in the overall hierarchy. Which social strata are present in society to a greater or lesser extent does not directly depend on these traits. Their character is auxiliary.
Ethnonational characteristics in different societies influence a person’s position to a different extent. In multicultural countries, this quality does not play a role at all. At the same time, in the modern world there are still quite a few countries where conservative national sentiments reign. In such societies, belonging to another ethnic group may be a decisive factor in determining whether a person belongs to one or another social stratum.
Other such characteristics are the gender, age, religious and cultural traits of a person. Their combination influences the individual’s social circle and interests. It is also worth noting a sign associated with the place of residence. In this case, we are mainly talking about the big difference between city dwellers and villagers.
People with a specific social status
Belonging to a particular group in society also depends on certain qualities and psychological attitudes of a person. In this series, scientists highlight a marginal position in society. It includes the unemployed, people without permanent residence, and refugees. In some societies, this may also include the disabled and pensioners, whose living conditions are noticeably worse than the rest of the population. Such a social gap arises in countries where there is an irresponsible state. If the authorities cannot provide the population with basic signs of a comfortable life, there will be more and more such marginalized people over time.
People with illegal behavior also have a specific status. These are citizens who have been convicted of their crimes. These include representatives of the criminal world, persons imprisoned in prisons and other correctional labor institutions. People who find themselves in a marginal or criminal group, as a rule, cannot climb the social ladder on their own or do not want to do so at all.
Social (stratification) structure is understood as the stratification and hierarchical organization of various layers of society, as well as the set of institutions and the relationships between them The term “stratification” comes from the Latin word stratum - layers, layer. Strata are large groups of people who differ in their position in the social structure of society.
All scientists agree that the basis of the stratification structure of society is the natural and social inequality of people. However, on the question of what exactly is the criterion for this inequality, their opinions differ. Studying the process of stratification in society, K. Marx called such a criterion the fact of a person’s possession of property and the level of his income. M. Weber added to them social prestige and the subject’s affiliation with political parties and power. Pitirim Sorokin considered the cause of stratification to be the uneven distribution of rights and privileges, responsibilities and duties in society. He also argued that social space has many other criteria for differentiation: it can be carried out by citizenship, occupation, nationality, religious affiliation, etc. Finally, supporters of the theory of structural functionalism proposed as a criterion to rely on those social functions that are performed by certain social strata in society.
Historically, stratification, i.e. inequality in income, power, prestige, etc., arises from the birth of human society. With the advent of the first states, it becomes tougher, and then, in the process of development of society (primarily European), it gradually softens.
In sociology, there are four main types of social stratification - slavery, castes, estates and classes. The first three characterize closed societies, and the last type - open ones.
The first system of social stratification is slavery, which arose in ancient times and still persists in some backward regions. There are two forms of slavery: patriarchal, in which the slave has all the rights of the youngest member of the family, and classical, in which the slave has no rights and is considered the property of the owner (a talking tool). Slavery was based on direct violence, and social groups during the era of slavery were distinguished by the presence or absence of civil rights.
The second system of social stratification should be recognized as caste. build. A caste is a social group (stratum) in which membership is transferred to a person only by birth. A person's transition from one caste to another during his lifetime is impossible - for this he needs to be born again. A classic example of a caste society is India. In India there are four main castes, which, according to legend, originated from different parts of the god Brahma:
a) brahmins - priests;
b) kshatriyas - warriors;
c) vaishyas - merchants;
d) Shudras - peasants, artisans, workers.
A special position is occupied by the so-called untouchables, who do not belong to any caste and occupy a lower position.
The next form of stratification consists of estates. An estate is a group of people that has rights and responsibilities enshrined in law or custom that are inherited. Usually in society there are privileged and unprivileged classes. For example, in Western Europe, the first group included the nobility and clergy (in France they were called that way - the first estate and the second estate) and the second - artisans, merchants and peasants. In Russia before 1917, in addition to the privileged (nobility, clergy) and unprivileged (peasantry), there were also semi-privileged classes (for example, the Cossacks).
Finally, another stratification system is class. The most complete definition of classes in the scientific literature was given by V.I. Lenin: “Classes are large groups of people that differ in their place in a historically defined system of social production, in their relationship (mostly fixed and formalized in laws) to the means of production, in their role in the social organization of labor, and, consequently, according to the methods of obtaining and the size of the share of social wealth that they have.” The class approach is often contrasted with the stratification approach, although in fact class division is only a special case of social stratification.
Depending on the historical period in society, the following classes are distinguished as the main ones:
a) slaves and slave owners;
b) feudal lords and feudal-dependent peasants;
c) the bourgeoisie and the proletariat;
d) the so-called middle class.
Since any social structure is a collection of all functioning social communities taken in their interaction, the following elements can be distinguished in it:
a) ethnic structure (clan, tribe, nationality, nation);
b) demographic structure (groups are distinguished by age and gender);
c) settlement structure (urban residents, rural residents, etc.);
d) class structure (bourgeoisie, proletariat, peasants, etc.);
e) vocational and educational structure.
In the most general form, in modern society three stratification levels can be distinguished: highest, middle and lowest. In economically developed countries, the second level is predominant, giving society a certain stability. In turn, within each level there is also a hierarchically ordered set of various social strata. A person who occupies a certain place in this structure has the opportunity to move from one level to another, increasing or decreasing his social status, or from one group located at any level to another located at the same level. This transition is called social mobility.
Social mobility sometimes leads to the fact that some people find themselves at the junction of certain social groups, while experiencing serious psychological difficulties. Their intermediate position is largely determined by their inability or unwillingness, for whatever reason, to adapt to one of the interacting social groups. This phenomenon of a person being, as it were, between two cultures, associated with his movement in social space, is called marginality. A marginal is an individual who has lost his former social status, is deprived of the opportunity to engage in his usual activities and, moreover, has found himself unable to adapt to the new sociocultural environment of the stratum within which he formally exists. The individual value system of such people is so stable that it cannot be replaced by new norms, principles, and rules. Their behavior is characterized by extremes: they are either overly passive or very aggressive, easily transgress moral standards and are capable of unpredictable actions. Among the marginalized there may be but marginalized people - people who find themselves in a foreign environment as a result of migration; political marginals - people who are not satisfied with legal opportunities and legitimate rules of socio-political struggle: religious marginals - people who are outside the confession or who do not dare to make a choice between them, etc.
The qualitative changes taking place in the economic basis of modern Russian society have entailed serious changes in its social structure. The currently emerging social hierarchy is characterized by inconsistency, instability and a tendency to significant changes. The highest stratum (elite) today can include representatives of the state apparatus, as well as owners of large capital, including their top - financial oligarchs. The middle class in modern Russia includes representatives of the entrepreneurial class, as well as knowledge workers, highly qualified managers (managers). Finally, the lower stratum consists of workers of various professions engaged in medium and low-skilled work, as well as clerical workers and public sector workers (teachers and doctors in state and municipal institutions). It should be noted that the process of social mobility between these levels in Russia is limited, which may become one of the prerequisites for future conflicts in society.
In the process of changing the social structure of modern Russian society, the following trends can be identified:
1) social polarization, i.e. stratification into rich and poor, deepening social and property differentiation;
2) massive downward social mobility;
3) massive change of place of residence by knowledge workers (the so-called “brain drain”).
In general, we can say that the main criteria that determine a person’s social position in modern Russia and his belonging to one or another stratification level are either the size of his wealth or his affiliation with power structures.
Social groups
People unite in the process of their life, and human society represents many different social communities and groups.
A social community is a really existing, empirically fixed set of people, characterized by relative integrity and acting as an independent subject of historical and social action.
Signs of a social community
Similarity of living conditions.
Commonality of needs.
Availability of joint activities.
Formation of your own culture.
Social identification of members of a community, their self-ascription to this community.
Social communities are distinguished by an unusual variety of specific forms and types. They may vary:
By quantitative composition: from several individuals to numerous masses;
By duration of existence: from minutes and hours (for example, train passengers, theater audience) to centuries and millennia (for example, ethnic groups (from the gr. ethnos - people, nation);
According to the degree of connection between individuals: from relatively stable associations to very amorphous, random formations (for example, a queue, a crowd, an audience of listeners, fans of football teams), which are called “quasi-groups” (Latin quasi - supposedly imaginary), or “social aggregations " They are characterized by fragility of relationships between people in contact.
Social communities are divided into stable (for example, a nation) and short-term (for example, passengers on a bus).
Types of social communities
Class communities and strata.
Historical forms of community.
Socio-demographic communities.
Corporate communities.
Ethnic and territorial communities.
Communities formed depending on the interests of individuals.
In general, the entire set of real social communities can be divided into two large subclasses: mass and group (social groups).
Social groups are stable collections of people who have distinct characteristics unique to them (social status, interests, value orientations).
The emergence of social groups, firstly, is associated with the social division of labor and specialization of activity, and secondly, it is caused by the historically established diversity of living conditions, culture, social norms and values.
Collectively, social groups form the social structure of society.
The social structure of society is the internal structure of a society or social group, ordered by certain norms for the interaction of parts. Social structure organizes society into a single whole.
As already noted, in addition to the concept of “group”, in sociology there is the concept of “quasi-group”.
A quasi-group is an unstable informal group of people, united, as a rule, by one or very few types of interaction, having an uncertain structure and system of values and norms.
There are the following types of quasigroups:
Audience - an association of people led by a communicator (for example, a concert or radio audience). Here there is such a type of social connections as the transmission and reception of information directly or with the help of technical means;
Fan group - an association of people based on fanatical commitment to a sports team, rock band or religious cult;
A crowd is a temporary gathering of people united by some interest or idea.
Basic properties of quasigroups:
Anonymity
Suggestibility
Social contagion
Unconsciousness
In modern conditions, when a huge amount of work is required to coordinate activities and resources, the importance of organizations increases.
An organization is a large association of people acting on the basis of non-personal connections, created to achieve specific goals (hospitals, educational institutions, firms, financial companies, banks, government agencies, etc.). Organizations are, for the most part, “designed”—established with specific goals, located in buildings or physical spaces specifically designed to help achieve those goals.
Groups and organizations directly influence human behavior. This influence can be both positive and negative.
The impact of a small group on a person
Positive
The relationships that develop in a group teach a person to comply with existing social norms and form value orientations that are internalized by the individual.
In a group, a person improves his communication skills
From group members a person receives information that allows him to correctly perceive and evaluate himself. The group gives a person self-confidence, supplies him with a system of positive emotions necessary for his development
Negative
The goals of the group are achieved by infringing on the interests of its individual members to the detriment of the interests of the whole society, i.e. group egoism takes place
The impact that the group has on usually gifted creative individuals: their original ideas were rejected by the majority because they were incomprehensible, and the extraordinary individuals themselves were restrained, suppressed in their development, persecuted
Sometimes a person enters into an internal conflict and behaves conformally (lat. conformis - similar), i.e., consciously disagreeing with the people around him, nevertheless agrees with them, based on some considerations
Thus, despite the fact that real society is made up of people and individuals, the true subjects of social relations are social groups.
Social (stratification) structure refers to the stratification and hierarchical organization of various layers of society, as well as the set of institutions and relations between them. The term “stratification” originates from the Latin word stratum - layer, layer. Strata are large groups of people that differ in their position in the social structure of society.
Scientists agree that the basis of the stratification structure of society is the natural and social inequality of people. However, on the question of what exactly serves as a criterion for inequality, their opinions differ. Studying the process of stratification in society, K. Marx called such a criterion the fact of a person’s possession of property and the level of his income. M. Weber added to them social prestige and the subject’s affiliation with political parties and power. P. Sorokin considered the cause of stratification to be the uneven distribution of rights and privileges, responsibilities and duties in society. He also argued that social space has many other criteria for differentiation: it can be carried out by citizenship, occupation, nationality, religious affiliation, etc. Finally, supporters of the theory of structural functionalism proposed to take into account as a criterion the social functions that are performed by certain other social strata in society.
In modern society, three stratification levels can be distinguished: highest, middle and lowest. In economically developed countries, the average level is predominant, giving society a certain stability. Within each level there is also a hierarchically ordered set of different social strata. These usually include the following strata blocks:
1) professional administrators;
2) technical specialists;
3) entrepreneurs;
4) intellectuals engaged in various types of mental work;
5) skilled workers;
6) unskilled workers, etc. A person who occupies some place in this
structure, has the opportunity to move from one level to another, increasing or decreasing their social status, or from one group located at any level to another, located at the same level. This transition is called social mobility. In the first case we talk about vertical mobility, in the second - about horizontal mobility. High rate of vertical social mobility in other equal conditions considered an important evidence of a democratic society.
The qualitative changes taking place today in the economy of modern Russian society have entailed serious changes in its social structure. The currently emerging social hierarchy is characterized by inconsistency, instability and a tendency to significant changes. The highest stratum (or elite) today can include representatives of the emerging bourgeoisie, the state apparatus, as well as intellectuals engaged in the field of financial business(they make up about 3-5% of the population). The creation of the so-called middle class in Russia is just beginning today (it is assumed that it will mainly include representatives of the entrepreneurial class, as well as workers engaged in highly skilled labor and knowledge workers). At the moment, according to sociological research, the number of people belonging to this stratification level ranges from 10 to 15%. Finally, the lowest stratum in modern Russia is workers of various professions, engaged in medium and low-skilled work, as well as clerical workers (approximately 80% of the population). It should be noted that the process of social mobility between these levels in Russia is limited. This may become one of the prerequisites for future conflicts in society.
The main trends observed in the change in the social structure of modern Russian society:
1) social polarization, i.e. stratification into rich and poor, deepening social and property differentiation;
2) the erosion of the intelligentsia, which manifests itself either in the mass departure of individuals from the sphere of mental work, or in their change of place of residence (the so-called “brain drain”);
3) the process of blurring the boundaries between specialists with higher education and highly qualified workers.
Loading...